Measuring ICT and Gender: An Assessment

Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT Report prepared Partnership Measuring ICT Development Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT Report prepared Partnership Measuring ICT Development York Geneva, 2014 IV Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT IV Note unCTad division Technology Logistics, iCT analysis section carries policy-oriented analytical work development implications information communications technologies (iCTs). seeks promote international dialogue issues related iCTs development, contributes building developing countries’ capacities measure information economy design implement relevant policies legal frameworks. iCT analysis section responsible preparation information economy report. report, terms country/economy refer, , territories areas. designations employed presentation material imply expression opinion part united nations legal status country, territory, city area, authorities delimitation frontiers boundaries. addition, designations country groups intended solely statistical analytical convenience necessarily express judgement stage development reached country area development process. reference companies activities construed endorsement unCTad companies activities. symbols tables: dots (..) data separately reported; rows tables omitted cases data elements row; dash (-) item equal negligible; blank table item applicable, ; slash (/) dates representing years, , 1994/95, financial year; en dash (–) dates representing years, , 1994–1995, signifies full period involved, including beginning years; term “dollars” ($) refers united states america dollars, ; annual rates growth change, stated, refer annual compound rates; details percentages tables necessarily add totals rounding. Material publication freely quoted reprinted, acknowledgement requested, copy publication quotation reprint unCTad secretariat. unCTad/WeB/dTL/sTiCT/2014/1 uniTed naTiOns PuBLiCaTiOn Copyright © united nations, 2014 rights reserved VContents CoNteNts Acknowledgements VII Abbreviations VIII Executive summary IX Chapter . INtroduCtIoN 1 . Objective report 2 . gender statistics 2 . Evolution gender-related ICT statistics 3 . Partnership Measuring ICT Development 4 . Partnership Task Group Gender 5 Chapter II. MeasureMeNt geNder aNd ICt 7 . Measurement gender ICT Partnership Task Group Gender 8 Partnership core indicators 8 Activities Partnership members gender-related statistics 8 . Gender-related ICT statistics indicators TGG members 10 . initiatives measure ICT gender 12 . Gender development: equality statistics, indicators indexes 13 Chapter III. IdeNtIfyINg areas deMaNd aNd INdICators 15 . Identifying areas demand gender-related ICT statistics 16 . Partnership gender issues 16 . Household access individual ICT 17 .1. existing core iCT indicators 17 .2. additions indicators household/individual 20 .3. household/individual indicators future consideration 24 .4. general methodological considerations gender statistics 25 . Education ICT indicators 26 .1. existing indicators disaggregated sex 26 .2. additional -core indicators iCT education disaggregated sex 26 .3. Proposed additional indicators education 28 . Employment 29 .1. employment iCT occupations 29 .2. iCT employment 31 . Businesses, small-business owners ICT indicators 32 .1. Business surveys 33 .2. surveys small-business owners 33 . -government 37 VI Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT Chapter IV. CoNClusIoNs aNd reCoMMeNdatIoNs 39 . Conclusions 40 . Recommendations 40 Partnership efforts 41 National efforts 41 aNNex. reVIsed aNd exteNded Core lIst ICt INdICators, 2013 43 BIBlIography 46 List tabLes Table 1. existing core indicators, suggested revisions proposed indicators measuring gender iCTs Table 2. Partnership’ core indicators possibility disaggregation sex (situation 2007) 5 Table 3. Countries reporting iTu core iCT access usage indicators, 2009−2011 19 Table 4. Proportion learners enrolled programmes offering internet-assisted instruction - ed6 27 Table 5. Proportion iCT qualified teachers primary secondary schools - ed8 27 Table 6. Categories iCT professional technical occupations 31 Table 7. economies reporting official data core indicator iCT1, 2008−2011 32 Table 8. regions/economies reporting official data core indicators iCT business, B1 B12, 2008−2011 34 VII aCkNowledgeMeNts report, Measuring iCT gender: assessment , based background paper prepared nancy Hafkin, unCTad consultant, guidance unCTad international Telecommunication union (iTu) close consultation members Task group gender (Tgg) Partnership Measuring iCT development. Preparation report based desk research, consultations Tgg individual members, person online, researchers gender statistics gender information communications technologies (iCTs). cooperation invaluable task. inputs received Tgg members: susan Teltscher, esperanza Magpantay doris Olaya iTu, Torbjörn Fredriksson, scarlett Fondeur diana Korka unCTad, Peter Wallet Martin schaaper unesCO institute statistics (uis), david Hunter international Labour Organization (iLO), remi Lang united nations economic social Commission asia Pacific (esCaP), nibal idlebi united nations economic social Commission Western asia (esCWa), alison gillwald Mariama deen- swarray research iCT africa (ria), shazna Zuhyle Lirneasia, sophia Huyer Women global science Technology (WisaT), sonia Jorge Karin alexander Web Foundation. report discussed detail Partnership expert Meeting gender iCT indicators held Mexico City 3 december 2013.1 presented, submitted written comments, iTu World Telecommunication/iCT indicators symposium (WTis) place Mexico City 4 6 december 2013.2 Valuable inputs comments received nancy Volensky (Bermuda), alexandre Barbosa Tatiana Jereissati (Brazil), germania estevez (dominican republic), nagwa el shenawy, safa Mostafa Heba Youssef (egypt), ernestina Hope Turkson (ghana), Biranchi narayan satpathy (india), Hock eng Koay (Malaysia), élix élez desiree delgado (Mexico), ramon albert (Philippines), Kaoru Kimura, William Prince Buyant Khaltarkhuu (World Bank). report benefited valuable discussions held meetings, Women, iCT development (WiCTad) Forum Washington January 2013, meeting Working group gender united nations Broadband Commission Mexico City april 2013 Wsis Forum geneva 2013. Members Partnership Measuring iCT development grateful national statistical offices (nsOs) sharing data responses received annual survey questionnaires measuring iCT. cover designed nadège Hadjemian, desktop publishing Laurence duchemin. report edited Praveen Bhalla. Publication report financial contribution government sweden. ACknowledgements VIII Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT aBBreVIatIoNs dFid department international development (united Kingdom) esCaP economic social Commission asia Pacific esCWa economic social Commission Western asia iaeg-gs inter-agency expert group gender statistics ( united nations) iCT information communications technology idrC international development research Centre (Canada) iLO international Labour Organization isCed international standard Classification education isCO international standard Classification Occupation isiC international standard industrial Classification iT information technology iTu international Telecommunication union Mdg Millennium development goal nsO national statistical office OeCd Organisation economic -operation development ria research iCT africa siM subscriber identity module Tgg Partnership Task group gender uis unesCO institute statistics unCTad united nations Conference Trade development undP united nations development Programme unesCO united nations educational, scientific Cultural Organization unsd united nations statistical division usaid united states agency international development WiCTad Women, iCT development WisaT Women global science Technology Wsis World summit information society IX exeCutIVe suMMary report constitutes part efforts Task group gender (Tgg) Partnership Measuring iCT development (hereinafter referred Partnership) improve availability sex-disaggregated data, developing countries. takes stock existing iCT indicators disaggregated sex, assesses data availability identifies main gaps based evaluation demand indicators. identifies areas covered potential areas sex-disaggregated data desirable, methodological work needed order develop relevant indicators fill data gaps. report prepared input Partnership’ work measuring iCT gender, intended serve basis discussions countries subject. major reason defining collecting gender-related statistics iCT identify document variations access iCT men women order inform national policy set international policy goals prerequisite achievement globally equitable information society. importance undertaking affirmed forums, including World summit information society (Wsis) Millennium development goals (Mdgs) united nations. data collected aggregate form, masks gender differences, situation women unrecorded , statistics policy formulation. iCT increasingly vital innumerable aspects everyday life globally, attention directed digital divides, gender divide major concern. Collection iCT-related sex-disaggregated statistics ensures realities men women reflected national iCT data, providing basis gender-inclusive policy planning. paucity sex-disaggregated iCT data, developing countries, difficult highlight policymakers address gender issues iCT policies, plans strategies. encouraging collection iCT statistics indicators important developing countries enormous gender- based disparities access iCTs, opportunities iCTs offer girls women countries. Partnership Measuring iCT development, established 2004, developed core list iCT indicators. latest version list (2013) includes 57 indicators, 12 collected disaggregated sex (annex). report describes efforts collect gender-disaggregated iCT statistics Partnership Tgg members, including international Telecommunication union (iTu), unesCO institute statistics (uis), unCTad, international Labour Organization (iLO), united nations economic social Commission asia Pacific (esCaP), united nations economic social Commission Western asia (esCWa), eurostat, Organisation economic -operation development (OeCd), Lirneasia, research iCT africa, Women global society Technology (WisaT) World Wide Web Foundation. international efforts studies define indicators measure gender iCT outlined. , , distinguish data compared internationally, objective Partnership, efforts collect disseminate data. complete absence iCT statistics indicators international statistics indicators gender equality underlined hope improved communications communities involved gender statistics iCT statistics, , advance measurement intersection gender iCT. united nations inter-agency expert group gender statistics (iaeg-gs) encouraging steps direction. demand great variety information relationship gender iCT realms. Based survey literature gender iCT, report identifies areas high demand exeCutive summAry Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT gender-related indicators, offers proposals sex-disaggregation existing indicators addition indicators line Partnership principles aims. notably, indicators : • relevance policy-making relating information society national, regional international levels • simple, realistic measurable • conceived view high probability country responses • burden data collection minimum areas covered proposed , internationally comparable, reliable gender-related data lacking include iCTs education, access iCTs, barriers internet, employment iCT sector iCT occupations sectors, iCT workforce entrepreneurship, aspects mobile phone , developing countries. suggested list measuring gender iCT comprises : ) revisions existing core indicators/surveys, ii) Proposed indicators, necessitate development work, iii) existing core indicators, involve data collection issues, shown table 1. proposed indicators cover categories: household/individual , employment, education, business small-business owners. areas highlighted consideration future revisions development indicators: gender equality broadband access gender-based violence. Collection data indicators important step building inclusive information societies. tabLe 1. existing core indicators, suggested revisions proposed indicators measuring gender icts indicator code indicator existing/proposed revisions existing indicator/ proposed indicator work needed HouseHold/individual iCT usage HH1, HH2, HH3, HH4, HH6, H11, HH13, HH14, HH16 Household access indicators Existing Filter question sex household head change HH5 Proportion individuals computer Existing   change HH7 Proportion individuals Internet Existing   change HH8 Proportion individuals Internet, location Existing   change HH9 Proportion individuals Internet, type activity Existing   change HH10 Proportion individuals mobile cellular telephone Existing   change HH12 Proportion individuals Internet, frequency Existing   change HH15 Individuals ICT skills, type skills Existing   change Proportion individuals mobile phone Proposed indicator Definition mobile phone ownership Proportion individuals mobile phone, type activity Proposed indicator Development responses mobile phone activities Proportion individuals Internet , type barriers Proposed indicator Development list barriers Internet access individuals eduCaTion ED6 Proportion learners access Internet school Existing change ED7 Proportion learners enrolled post- secondary level ICT-related fields Existing Data indicator. UNESCO collect data indicator. continued XI tabLe 1. existing core indicators, suggested revisions proposed indicators measuring gender icts indicator code indicator existing/proposed revisions existing indicator/ proposed indicator work needed ED8 Proportion ICT-qualified teachers schools Existing Proportion primary secondary schoolteachers trained teach subjects ICT facilities (ISCED* levels 1-3) (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Based -core indicator ED38 Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering computer assisted instruction (ISCED levels 1-3) (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Based existing indicator Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering Internet-assisted instruction (ISCED levels 1-3) (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Based existing indicator Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering courses basic computer skills computing (ISCED levels 1-3) (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Based existing indicator Proportion graduates ICT-related fields post-secondary -tertiary tertiary levels (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Based -core indicator ED46 employmenT ICT1 Proportion total business sector workforce involved ICT sector Proposed revision: disaggregated sex Disaggregate indicators sex Proportion employees ICT occupations Proposed indicator Definition measurement ICT occupations Business B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, B10, B11, B12 Indicators business access Proposed revision: addition filter question gender composition business employees Precise formulation filter question determined: male/female dominated, neutral small-Business owners Proportion small-business owners Internet (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Elaboration implementation survey owners micro small businesses, ICT module included Development responses Internet, type activity Proportion small-business owners mobile phones (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Proportion small-business owners mobile phones, type activity (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator Proportion small-business owners Internet, type activity (sex disaggregated) Proposed indicator -governmenT EG1 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely computers Existing change definition. Data ; collected indicator. EG2 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely Internet Existing change definition. Data ; collected indicator. Note: * isCed unesCO’ international standard Classification education. exeCutive summAry XII Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT reCoMMeNdatIoNs proposed actions partnership Continued improvement collection iCT data individual level, developing countries, key obtaining gender-related iCT statistics. importantly Partnership continue efforts encourage national statistical offices (nsOs) official statistical entities developing countries collect individual-level iCT data, sex classificatory variable. Partnership members individually raise awareness policymakers data producers importance sex-disaggregated iCT statistics, emphasizing individual-level iCT statistics collected existing surveys disaggregation sex allocating additional resources. Partnership, Task group gender (Tgg), continue increase interaction gender statistics community, iaeg-gs, foster awareness importance iCT gender issues. efforts promote collection data mobile cellular phones individuals, developing countries, countries - form iCT, girls women. Partnership Tgg continue working nsOs establish, revise , internationally comparable gender iCT indicators countries nationally representative data collection activities, consideration previous efforts, manuals guidelines produced Partnership. national level national statistical offices (nsOs), collaboration iCT policymakers, integration gender perspective iCT data stage planning data collection, setting objectives survey census. equally important promoting awareness gender collecting internationally comparable statistics order facilitate sound analysis development effective policies programmes promote gender equality. iCT survey desirable, large number questions, practical financial reasons, , . case, inclusion iCT questions module existing surveys, census labour force survey, valuable. , survey() aim avoid gender bias ensure situation girls women properly reflected individual-level iCT data guidelines, manuals training supervisory field personnel. , nsOs disseminate widely results obtained data collection. Chapter . IntroductIon 2 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT . oBjeCtIVe thIs report report constitutes part efforts Partnership Measuring iCT development Task group gender (Tgg) improve availability internationally comparable sex- disaggregated data, developing countries. addition interest Partnership national statistical offices (nsOs), concerned ensuring -inclusion information society. membership Tgg led jointly iTu unCTad, includes unesCO institute statistics (uis), united nations economic social Commission Western asia (esCWa), united nations economic social Commission asia Pacific (esCaP), international Labour Organization (iLO), Lirneasia, research iCT africa (ria), Women global science Technology (WisaT) World Wide Web Foundation. achieve goals, Task group collaborates organizations, including iaeg-gs Women, iCT, development (WiCTad) international Forum. report seeks achieve objectives: · stock existing iCT indicators disaggregated sex, assess data availability identify main gaps, country regional levels, based evaluation demand indicators; · identify areas covered, potential areas sex-disaggregated data desirable, determine methodological work needed develop relevant indicators address data gaps. pays special attention identifying indicators relevant gender iCT developing countries represents step work Tgg. stage develop statistical standards related proposed indicators define priority areas measurement, consultation countries relevant existing expert groups. . geNder statIstICs main reason defining collecting gender statistics iCT identify document variations access iCT sex order inform national policy set international policy goals. collection analysis iCT gender statistics prerequisite achievement globally equitable information society. Men women world realities, roles, positions constraints. situation men norm men women, ignoring differences . 2012 gender inequality index united nations development Programme (undP) 3 shows country world achieved gender equality. women tend poorer men, countries educated. , majority world’ illiterates women. Women general tend earn , hold positions power decisions family, businesses, political public life. inequalities affect ability women benefit equally opportunities offered iCTs contribute fully shaping development global knowledge economy society. redressing gender equalities matter equal rights reason addressing gender- related issues iCT; clear economic case promoting gender equality. research shows closing gender gaps lead substantial increases capita income (united nations, 2013). roles women social development unquestionable, education children, ensuring health - families. social role family caretaker production roles, women profit iCTs, obviate mobility, overcome barriers access information increase economic opportunities, contributing poverty alleviation. forums highlighted important role iCTs play aspects economic social development. , undoubtedly, full participation men women access iCTs increase positive impact technologies. , maximizing participation requires knowledge existing gender inequities. aggregate data collection masks gender differences, implies women’ realities remain unrecorded , statistics policy. realization underlies push gender statistics. iCTs increasingly vital innumerable aspects everyday life globally, attention directed digital divides, 3ChApter . IntroductIon gender divide major concern.4 Collection gender-related iCT statistics undertaken effort ensure situation men women reflected national iCT data order provide basis gender-inclusive policy planning (undesa, 2013). data visibility; visibility priority paucity sex-disaggregated iCT data, developing countries, difficult, impossible, case policymakers consideration gender-related issues iCT policies, plans strategies. lack adequate data resulting scarcity gender statistics affects policy implementation. , dearth gender-specific data policymakers reflected absence gender awareness iCT iCT-related policies undertaking costly gender-related initiatives basis insufficient evidence. internationally comparable iCT gender statistics provide insight iCT economic social development. enable understanding ways men women experience iCTs present accurate picture scope intensity gender-based digital divide. statistics ensure economic efficiency national development based full utilization human resources, important global knowledge society. desired result men women contribute equally building national knowledge societies; cost immense.5 concern gender iCT statistics indicators broad-based. iCT isolated area; permeates fields education, health, governance, agriculture, finance, labour, science technology, gender issues. outcome gender inequities iCT policies, strategies, programmes projects gender- neutral. iCT impacts men women differently. technology gender socially constructed, social attitudes norms influence relationship .6 Women face disadvantages regard technologies, social norms behaviour women, cultural attitudes, gender-based division labour, gender stereotypes gender-based violence. result, access , benefits technologies. 7 hand, women gain iCT men, terms time, freedom opportunities. widely acknowledged role women achievement Millennium development goals (Mdgs), adopted 2000 provide framework promotion monitoring poverty reduction improvement quality life developing countries, leads inevitable conclusion iCTs incorporate strong measure gender awareness achieve targeted impact goals.8 policy implication gender disparities access iCTs, developing countries, , special interventions , women benefit information society men. Variations iCT access usage men women suggest special attention gender issues view promoting gender equality fully utilizing country’ human potential. step collection data identify inequalities problems. iCT affected men women similarly, distinguish situation women, sex-disaggregated statistics needed inform policy-making. . eVolutIoN geNder- related ICt statIstICs 10 15 years tremendous advances availability internet mobile telephones, development myriad applications functions technologies increasing convergence . internationally comparable statistics indicators required document spread, places frequency , impact economic social development countries, compare developments countries. growing awareness tremendous impacts technologies drive understand social impacts, individuals devices, purpose, effect. awareness inequalities beneficiaries -inclusion led calls disaggregated measures access 4 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT . emergence interest gender-related iCT statistics indicators. gender-based categories homogeneous; tremendous variation population women country regard age, ethnicity, education, skills, employment, income geography, factors. scholars argued categories – individually groups – greater determinants relationship iCT gender. important gender relation categories order obtain nuanced view gender iCT. , ria’ research 12 african countries showed education income stronger determinants iCT access gender. socio-cultural factors higher concentration women uneducated, unemployed poor segments society marginalize terms access iCTs.9 study showed positive correlation women iCTs gender inequalities removed women equal footing men.10 inequalities exist, developed countries, account. measures adopted united nations led awareness collecting gender iCT statistics. initial stimulus 2001 economic social Council resolution /2001/.29 social Human rights Questions: advancement Women, called “mainstreaming gender perspective policies programmes united nations system.” Commission status Women session focused women, media communication (2003) highlighted gender iCT statistics indicators, recommended governments relevant united nations agencies organizations “...increase efforts compile disaggregate, sex age, statistics iCT , order develop gender-specific indicators iCT , collect gender-specific data employment education patterns media iCT professions”.11 World summit information society (Wsis), phase (geneva, 2003), recognizing lack gender-related indicators, recommended corrective action: “gender-specific indicators iCT developed measurable performance indicators identified assess impact funded iCT projects lives women girls.”12 geneva declaration Principles (2003) emanating Wsis stated “... fully committed information society enables women’ empowerment full participation spheres society [] decision-making processes.” Wsis Plan action (2003) mentioned gender analysis included iCT development index generation statistics set index,13 reference collection sex-disaggregated data, basis developing gender-specific indicators, set gender-specific targets. . aBout partNershIp oN MeasurINg ICt deVelopMeNt Partnership Measuring iCT development, launched unCTad Xi sao Paulo 2004, mandated Tunis agenda (emanating phase Wsis 2005) support Wsis efforts develop specific sex-disaggregated indicators measure dimensions digital divide.14 objective Partnership provide reliable, internationally comparable indicators countries document spread iCT development. Considerable progress 2005 collection sex-disaggregated iCT statistics addition iTu individual-level data household surveys iCT , , 2007, disaggregation sex, classificatory variables. individual- indicators established time ( table 2), multiple responses (HH8, HH9 HH12). suggested -indicators constructed individual classificatory variables age, gender, highest education level, employment status occupation.15 importance including questions individual household surveys - emphasized. absence, disaggregate individual household level, essential understanding gender differences, access iCT household guarantee persons household. advantage collecting core indicators 5ChApter . IntroductIon individual permit questions technologies home, places, disaggregated age educational level. iTu’ issued policy gender equality Mainstreaming, underlines basic case gender statistics indicators, boost work Partnership gender statistics indicators. stated report secretary- general iTu: united nations specialized agency iCTs, iTu’ mission “Connecting World”. context, including gender perspective iTu’ work essential ensure benefits iCTs women men fair equitable basis.16 . partNershIp task group oN geNder Tgg, jointly led unCTad iTu, set 2013 cater increasing demand internationally comparable sex-disaggregated gender-related iCT data. objective Tgg build previous work Partnership improve availability internationally comparable indicators gender iCTs, developing countries. , transparent, comparable comprehensive statistical information iCTs gender enable assessment gender gaps access iCTs improve ability governments design, implement monitor iCT-related policies, projects initiatives relevant areas. Tgg includes members civil society organizations Partnership, experience collecting disseminating iCT statistics regional / international levels. Current members Tgg : iTu, unCTad, uis, unesCaP, unesCWa, iLO, Lirneasia, ria, WisaT World Wide Web Foundation. Tgg works consultation producers national statistics, nsOs responsible authorities, establish common methodologies guidelines internationally comparable indicators. report Tgg discussed detail Partnership expert Meeting gender iCT indicators, held 3 december 2013 Mexico City. presented submitted written comments national delegations attending iTu World Telecommunication/iCT indicators symposium (WTis) place Mexico City 4 6 december 2013. stage work Tgg develop statistical standards related proposed indicators define priority areas measurement, consultation countries relevant expert groups. tabLe 2. partnership’ core indicators possibiLity disaggregation sex (situation 2007) indicator id indicator HH5 Proportion individuals computer 12 months HH6 Proportion households Internet access HH7 Proportion individuals Internet 12 months HH8 Location individual Internet 12 months HH9 Internet activities undertaken individuals 12 months HH10 Proportion individuals mobile cellular telephone 12 months HH12 Frequency individual Internet 12 months Source: united nations statistical Commission, 2009. Chapter II. MeasureMent gender Ict 8 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT . MeasureMeNt geNder aNd ICt wIthIN partNershIp aNd task group oN geNder chapter summarizes work gender- related iCT indicators Partnership Tgg members, working international statistics. partnership core indicators core list iCT indicators Partnership Measuring iCT development, latest version (2013), comprises 57 indicators, covering : iCT infrastructure access, access iCT households individuals, iCT businesses, iCT sector, trade iCT goods, iCT education -government (annex). 57 indicators, 12 collected disaggregated sex, 7 fall purview iTu, unesCO institute statistics responsible 3 . date, international agency collects individual-level indicators -government, widely tested.17 , business indicators disaggregated sex. activities partnership members gender-related statistics itu iTu long experience defining collecting internationally comparable telecommunication/iCT indicators, played key role standardizing definitions. indicators collected sex disaggregation telecommunication staff (full-time- equivalent telecommunication employees) internet users. data telecommunication operators authorities countries. , 2005, closely linked Wsis, iTu expanded statistical work cover household statistics collecting data iCT household indicators national statistical offices. active member Partnership Measuring iCT development, iTu contributed development core list iCT household indicators, including definitions, consultations stakeholders preparation relevant methodological documents. 2007, started collecting sex-disaggregated data iCT household indicators annually questionnaire nsOs, collect information national household surveys. Core indicators aspects individual iCT provide information gender dimension. addition gender, data individual iCT- indicators collected broken age, urban/rural location, educational level, labour force status occupation users. indicators turn broken gender ( , age gender simultaneously), countries report sample design sizes necessarily level disaggregation household surveys. 2011, iCT- data reported 38 developing countries ( 30 2008) 38 developed countries.18 iTu delivering training courses measuring iCT access households individuals developing countries. disseminates sex-disaggregated data collects number forms, including electronic database, World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators (WTi) database, Yearbook Statistics website. report, Measuring Information Society (Mis), 2011, includes chapter internet , analyses gender dimension. iTu participates iaeg-gs, considers iCT-related indicators minimum set gender indicators. iTu contributing data : proportion individuals internet proportion individuals mobile cellular telephone. unctad unCTad collects data 12 core indicators measure iCT business. gender long identified important dimension digital divide, time core indicators proposed, clear business indicators data disaggregated sex, disaggregated sex. present report proposals issue addressed. unCTad extensively involved examining issues related gender information economy, notably Information Economy Report 2010 covered -depth linkage women, iCT 9ChApter ii. MeasureMent gender Ict information economy poverty alleviation. subsequent report contained chapter women entrepreneurship iCT.19 unesco institute statistics unesCO institute statistics (uis) deeply involved disaggregation education statistics indicators sex 50 years. Based administrative data pupils teachers, helps monitor progress achievement gender-related aspects Mdgs education (eFa). institute internationally mandated administer statistical data collection availability, impacts iCT education. 2013, collected data 86 developing 12 developed economies, published accompanying analytical reports. relation iCT gender, uis collects sex-disaggregated data enrolment programmes offering types iCT-assisted instruction training teachers. developing statistical capacity regions holding workshops representatives national statistical offices relevant ministries, ministries education. united nations regional commissions regional commissions collect iCT data; 20 publish iTu’ iCT data. economic commission africa economic Commission africa initiatives collect sex-disaggregated gender-related data member states. developed african database entitled scan iCT, covering 62 core indicators, age gender classificatory variables individual indicators. database updated , eCa continuing scan iCT programme nsOs Morocco, namibia nigeria. participating countries generally Partnership’ core indicators.21 eCa regional entry composite gender index field african gender development index (agdi), , notably, composite gender equality indexes, includes indicator inclusion gender issues technology policies african states, explicitly including iCT.22 index-related data collection applied 30 african countries. economic social commission asia pacific esCaP collect iCT data member states. conducted review national gender statistics collection 2012, slightly quarter respondents collected gender iCT statistics, similar proportion reported collecting regularly.23 , response rate esCaP’ membership, include mainland China, india republic Korea ( extensive gender iCT statistics). significantly, country identified iCT area planned expand production gender statistics. economic social commission western asia decade esCWa started project arab Women science Technology, included list indicators adopted high-level decision-makers 15 arab countries. sex- disaggregated data egypt, Jordan Palestine, secretariat discontinued project urged arab member states collect sex-disaggregated data technical scientific areas. 2013 esCWa expert group Meeting role iCT socio-economic development recommended bridging gender digital gap region. esCWa undertaking study impact iCT arab youth, focus gender issues, including potential iCT women’ empowerment higher education employment. 2012 review gender statistics esCWa member states, based responses 13 ( 14) states, showed nsOs gender focal point, respondents reported iCT government entity collecting gender statistics. , countries reported produced gender iCT statistics regularly, reported irregularly produced . country reported gender iCT part statistics expansion plan, list gender field accorded national priority.24 economic commission Latin america caribbean (ecLac) assistance international development research Centre (idrC), Canada, economic Commission Latin america Caribbean (eCLaC) established Observatory 10 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT information society Latin america Caribbean (OsiLaC) 2004 promote creation iCT statistics.25 OsiLaC worked nsOs region include iCT indicators existing household surveys promoted Partnership core indicators iCT, gender individual variables.26 eCLaC presented gender iCT data context women’ economic empowerment, gender equality iCT 12th regional Conference Women Latin american Caribbean, held dominican republic October 2013.27 eCLaC maintains database gender equality gender equality Observatory Latin american Caribbean, indicators database refer iCT.28 eurostat eurostat extensive statistics information society cover iCT sector, broadband connectivity, iCT usage households, individuals enterprises -public services. indicators iCT usage household individuals broken gender, number classificatory variables, including age educational attainment.29 individual-level variables including relating online purchases problems encountered , willingness pay online content online public services.30 oecd OeCd collects large number individual- iCT indicators members based model survey iCT usage households/individuals (2005).31 survey questionnaire updated increase number breakdowns variables.32 current questionnaire includes queries viruses protection therefrom, good computer practices (.. -), internet access internet broadband. detailed questions internet purchase goods services, applicable - OeCd countries.33 Guide Measuring Information Society (2011), OeCd publishes tables Partnership’ core iCT indicators household individual , iCT education, -OeCd economies. list economies, individual indicators availability 2009 latest year. 34 OeCd directorate science, Technology industry collecting set sex-disaggregated indicators (comparable eurostat database) -european OeCd countries.35 OeCd gender data portal, data relate iCT.36 2006, OeCd published paper gender iCT covered number aspects employment, access iCT gender differentials iCT developed countries.37 . geNder-related ICt statIstICs aNd INdICators tgg MeMBers international Labour organization (iLo) individual-level official statistics compiled disseminated iLO disaggregated sex, meaningful. 1993, iLO launched segregaT database, statistics employment detailed occupational groups disaggregated sex, measure analyse occupational segregation men women. database covers 85 developed developing countries, updated early 2000s.38 data employment iCT occupations extent national international occupation classifications database separate identification. iLO, sex-disaggregated labour statistics widely , nsOs mainstreaming gender production presentation labour statistics.39 iLOsTaT database includes sex-disaggregated data employment iCT professionals, defined international standard Classification Occupations, 2008 (isCO-08). data iCT professionals 25 countries globally years 2009 2010. occupational group represents important component workforce engaged production iCT goods services.40 iLO disseminates statistics employment, hours worked earnings classified sex, economic activity aggregate level division relevant version international standard industrial Classification (isiC). 11ChApter ii. MeasureMent gender Ict Lirneasia Lirneasia41 studying mobile phone ownership , productive purposes.42it rich database sex-disaggregated data mobile phone -income individuals number asian countries. 2005 2011 completed studies population segment considered base pyramid (.. belonging socio-economic groups earn average individual income approximately $2 day),43 living urban rural areas. multi- country studies covered Bangladesh, india, indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines, sri Lanka Thailand. Lirneasia completing urban microentrepreneur survey income groups, collecting data disaggregated sex Bangladesh, india sri Lanka. survey focuses urban microenterprises telecommunications, electricity government services interact service providers. Lirneasia contributed tele- data gsM association mWomen (gsMa mWomen) initiative. research ict africa (ria) Based Cape Town (south africa), ria44 independent network researchers covering 20 african countries geographical linguistic zones. 2005, produced large data sets disaggregated sex iCT access surveys. samples nationally representative rural urban areas households individuals 15 years older, based census-sampling frames national statistical offices. ria’ survey data unique region special iCT surveys inclusion sex-disaggregated iCT indicators household individual user surveys common. sex- disaggregated individual-level indicators cover platforms mobiles computers, topics mobile money, -government -health. 2010, ria published Gender Assessment ICT Access Usage Africa 17 countries gender analysis sex-disaggregated iCT indicators variables, combined qualitative data focus group discussions.45 study updated 2013 publication Lifting Veil ICT: Gender Indicators Africa.46 ria’ findings “men women access iCTs equally [ africa] fundamental reason lies gender disparities income education.” conclusions stress importance policy intervention ensure social economic inclusion women targeted iCT interventions. women global science technology (wisat) 2007, WisaT, cooperation OrBiCOM, elsevier Foundation Organization Women science developing World (OWsd), developed framework quantitative qualitative research women knowledge society entitled Gender Equality Knowledge Society (geKs). framework starts base conditions socio- economic political development determine ability women men contribute knowledge society, incorporates indicators relating ability women men participate knowledge society. quantitative framework combines indicators international statistical sources science technology, education, gender iCT measures lifelong learning women’ public access information technology role management information centres.47 geKs framework, national researchers countries region undertook studies 2012 aimed collecting quantitative indicators combined qualitative research. additional country studies 2013.48 world wide web foundation Founded sir Tim Berners-Lee 2009, objective World Wide Web Foundation promote open accessible web. Foundation launched Web index 61 countries 2012 expanded 81 countries 2013. index combines international data official providers survey data gathered means questionnaire completed experts iCT country, checked peer regional reviewers. indicators qualitative, based experts’ opinions.49 Web index survey questions directed major gender issues relating iCT internet, including gender-based violence (gBV). issues relate utilizing web information source, addressing direct association iCT gBV; relate women’ leadership positions iCT, internet 12 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT training programmes women government, measures encouraging women access internet. Web Foundation’ concern access affordability, host alliance affordable internet notable absence data collection questions costs internet access women’ disposable income meet costs. . INItIatIVes Measure ICt aNd geNder section describes efforts international research studies define indicators measure gender iCT, undertaken united nations, -governmental organizations (ngOs), foundations private sector. gender evaluation methodology internet icts (gem) association Progressive Communication gender evaluation Methodology internet iCTs (geM)50 initiative measure gender benefits iCT. geM directed project level, combines quantitative data collection qualitative research evaluate impact iCTs lives women, families communities. set guidelines gender analysis effective creating awareness gender analysis iCT development projects. égentic égentic ambitious project undertaken 2003 2005 develop gender iCT indicators French-speaking West africa. supported idrC, involved large-scale research covering sample 7,000 persons West african countries. project defined categories indicators: decision-making policy, skills, content connectivity. questions referred iCT devices (defined computers, internet mobile phones), treated single research entity. Questionnaires administered men women, institutions, collect data men women differ relationships iCT. study collected data women iCT decision-making positions iCT policies – fields commonly collected. women web research intel Women Web (2013) involved 1,800 -person 400 online surveys − small sample quantitative global survey. individual surveys women conducted Mexico, india, uganda egypt, included questions women’ internet usage patterns, preferences, location usage, usage platforms, perceptions internet barriers internet access. questions qualitative, eliciting perceptions, opinions, attitudes beliefs, (.. effect internet life).51 scholars criticized methodology, measuring percentage contribution gdP increased female internet .52 women mobile: global opportunity gsM association (gsMa)/Blair Foundation study women base pyramid mobile phones economic case connection women’ ownership mobile phones empowerment. . study data reveal gender gap, 300 million women users mobile phones men - middle-income countries 2010. , academic community wary finding questions methodology .53 study appears motivated search market opportunities previously untapped consumer groups developing countries emerging market economies. gsMa envisages market potential 300 million women users mobile phones. postulates road women’ empowerment ownership ( ) mobile phones. 13ChApter ii. MeasureMent gender Ict . geNder aNd deVelopMeNt: equalIty statIstICs, INdICators aNd INdexes clear disconnect gender statistics gender-related iCT statistics. Partnership Wsis promoted collection gender-related iCT statistics based belief disaggregation sex important element working inclusive economic social development linked iCT information society. gender statistics community similar awareness importance iCT gender equality women’ empowerment. 2013 report secretary-general states, “ production gender statistics focuses predominantly traditional areas emerging areas.”54 gender statistics concerned integrating gender perspective national statistics, important integrating iCT perspective gender statistics, view global importance information/knowledge society. 40 cent countries produce national statistics reported producing gender statistics iCT, slightly reported producing .55 countries listed gender iCT priority area. section briefly describes major international indexes statistical initiatives gender development equality document disconnect. Composite gender equality indexes, concentrate economic participation national competitiveness, completely devoid indicators analyses women’ participation iCT world, users producers. total absence iCT composite indexes glaring omission. gender iCT cross-cutting development areas, intersection concern . gender category importance iCT development, iCT adequate attention gender statistics. regrettably, case. oecd social institutions gender index 2009, OeCd producing social institutions gender index (sigi)56 based gender institutions development database. sigi root inequality based areas family codes, physical integrity, son preference, civil liberties ownership rights. differs gender indexes emphasizes social economic arena. Based composite indicators areas, index calculates inequality score ranks countries . , data refer iCT. social watch gender equity index (gei) social Watch gender equity index produced 2007 network east-West Women, international ngO serves communication resource network support research advocacy status women Central eastern europe, Commonwealth independent states (Cis) russian Federation. Presently covering 154 countries, index aims show statistically economic development necessarily correlate gender equality. computes average gender inequalities dimensions: education, economic activity participation political economic decision-making, omits average level income country avoid skewing rankings rich countries.57 Countries Mongolia, nicaragua, Philippines rwanda, ranked high index, richer countries Turkey saudi arabia ranked . mention iCT dimensions. undp gender inequality index (gii) undP gii designed complement annual Human Development Report (HdP) index, disaggregated sex. gii, introduced HDP 2010, replaced earlier indexes – gender development index gender empowerment Measure (geM),58 criticized closely tied country’ level development. index measures percentage loss human development due gender inequality, based indicators reproductive health, empowerment labour market participation. , discussion iCT. world economic forum global gender gap index existence 2006, index59 attempts capture magnitude gender disparities 14 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT country distribution men women resources opportunities economic, political, educational health areas. Based internationally statistics, index attempts track correlation country’ gender gap national competitiveness. index includes indicator percentage women workers total professional technical workforce, specific reference iCT analysis.60 united nations inter-agency expert group gender statistics (iaeg-gs) cases presented , poor interface gender indicators iCT indicators, gender equality statistics indicators. work iaeg-gs significant exception, 2012. meeting 2012 global Forum gender statistics dead sea, Jordan, iaeg-gs proposed minimum set 52 gender indicators, including related information technology: • Proportion population internet, sex • Proportion population mobile/cellular telephones, sex • Proportion households access mass media (radio, TV, internet), sex household head61 important step, shows international gender statistics community realizes significance gender iCT. hoped inclusion indicators increase general awareness importance gender considerations iCT lead addition related indicators suggested minimum list gender indicators. edge evidence data gender equality (edge) initiative partnership organized iaeg- gs promote efforts comparable gender indicators education, employment, entrepreneurship assets. jointly managed united nations entity gender equality empowerment Women ( Women) united nations statistics division, collaboration member states, World Bank, OeCd . fact edge strongly supported iaeg-gs bolster collection iCT gender indicators gender statistics. objective edge meet demand member states support accessing gender statistics helping build national capacity strengthen national systems data collection critical areas. promote development statistical standards definitions gender indicators. 2012 2015, edge focus women’ education, employment entrepreneurship, areas iCT figure prominently. long-term goal secure integration gender issues regular statistical production build countries’ capacities produce gender data critical policy areas. hoped Partnership collaborate edge gender iCT statistics. Chapter III. IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators 16 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT chapter identifies areas demand gender- related iCT statistics indicators based relevant literature. describes work Partnership presents existing gender indicators relevant areas. recommendations gender-related core iCT indicators updating existing indicators, discusses methodological considerations work Partnership Tgg. . IdeNtIfyINg areas deMaNd geNder-related ICt statIstICs demand large variety information relationship gender iCT fields. 2013, Partnership organized discussions identify demand WiCTad meeting Washington, dC, panel meeting Measuring iCT gender Wsis Forum geneva.62 review meetings literature gender iCT raises questions: • gender differences access iCTs – internet mobile phones • differences , , men women iCTs • barriers women face accessing internet • women education, training skills required function information society • gender disparities iCT employment entrepreneurship • iCT women’ entrepreneurship, income generation -employment • content girls women accessible • ICTs improve health situation girls, women families developing countries • gender-specific ICT issues regard privacy, safety security • extent women’ representation participation iCT policy governance • impact iCT women’ empowerment list topics informs discussion potential indicators. . partNershIp aNd geNder Issues list gender issues iCT development fit easily standard categories Partnership, mandates Partner members. order deal vast amount literature gender iCT development, important define Partnership sets pursue. purpose gender-related data collection promoted Partnership provide picture situation girls women compared boys men, globally country, regard multiple areas relate iCTs lives. Partnership aims produce indicators compared countries based agreed definitions methodologies, data representative country’ population. Core indicators succinct based principles. : • relevance information society policy-making national, regional international levels • simple, realistic measurable • conceived view high probability country response • burden data collection minimum resources nsOs developing countries influence gender-relevant statistically definable indicators collected. determining fields important desire collect information broad range issues balanced ability collect data. definition indicators, Partnership limited areas nsOs partners collect iCT data. illustrated issue mobile phones empowerment women developing countries, topic major interest field iCT development. Partnership define indicators measure mobile phone access 17ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators men women, , domains − household/individual , employment, education, business − establish causal effects iCT gender empowerment national-level quantitative data collection international standards. Partnership indicators data establish basic facts provide picture. causal (“”) impact (“ ”) questions work researchers, including gender development analysts.63 researchers frequently evidence impacts iCT gender, positive negative. instance – women’ employment opportunities income increased result access iCT gender conflicts iCT access lead gender- based violence Questions impact easily addressed small-scale surveys qualitative case studies, official statistics.64 listed areas concern addressed existing quantitative national-level indicators, limited data developing countries. partially addressed, require coverage. collection internationally comparable, reliable iCT indicators fulfil data understanding gender, iCT development. data topics fall domain national statistics gathered means. time , , collection statistics sex-disaggregated iCT penetration countries sufficiently challenging . . household aCCess aNd INdIVIdual ICt gender classificatory variables recommended core individual iCT- indicators established Partnership. indicators, collected nsOs, needed assess variety gender iCT issues, ranging quantifying male-female differentials computer , identifying gender awareness information services internet, measuring gender-based gaps iCT skills. iTu responsible organizing collection indicators. .1. Existing core ICT indicators gender-related indicators household iCT access individual iCT core indicators, reflecting latest revisions indicators. Methods sources data collection indicators detailed Core ICT Indicators 2010 Manual Measuring ICT Access Households Individuals.65 data individual- indicators collected broken age gender, urban/rural location gender, educational level gender, labour force status gender, occupation person gender.66 responses important gender point view, enable identification male-female differentials, response categories individual- indicators shown . HH5 Proportion individuals computer67 HH7 Proportion individuals Internet HH8 Location individual Internet - Home - Work - Place education - person’ home - Community internet access facility (typically free charge) - Commercial internet access facility (typically paid) - mobility (.. journey metro, bus train, ) HH9 Internet activities undertaken individuals - information goods services - seeking health information (.. injury, disease, nutrition) - Making appointment health practitioner website - information general government organizations - interacting general government organizations - sending receiving -mails - Telephoning internet/VoiP (Voice internet Protocol) - Participating social networks (.. creating user profile, posting messages, contributions sites Facebook, Twitter) - accessing chat sites, blogs, newsgroups online discussions 18 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT - Purchasing ordering goods services - selling goods services (.. eBay, Facebook) - services related travel travel-related accommodation - internet banking - formal online ( subject) - Consulting wikis (.. Wikipedia), online encyclopaedias websites formal learning purposes - Listening web radio - Watching web television - Playing/streaming downloading games, images, videos music - downloading software applications - reading downloading online newspapers magazines, electronic books - job sending job application - Participating professional networks (.. creating user profiles, posting messages contributions sites Linkedin Xing) - Teleworking - Managing personal/ homepage - uploading /user-created content (.. text, images, photos, videos, music, software) website shared - Blogging (maintaining adding content blog) - Posting opinions civic political issues websites (.. blogs, social networks) - part online consultations voting define civic political issues (.. urban planning, signing petition) - storage space internet save documents, pictures, music, video, files (.. google drive, dropbox, Windows skydrive, iCloud, amazon Cloud drive) - software run internet editing text documents, spreadsheets presentations (.. google docs, Office 365) indicator comprises extensive list individual activities internet, responses , disaggregated sex, long supplying gender-related information content accessed. separate, sex-disaggregated -indicator computed categories. , frequent demand data women’ iCT health, regard seeking health-related information services. responses HH9 cover concerns. important gender-related issue covered HH9 access women -government services information. responses potential sources data male-female differentials -governance services. extent -government services women men, , substantial policy significance, women developing countries frequently mobile earn incomes men, experience discrimination harassment utilizing government services person. desirable numbers women access government information services internet comparable men , women finding information services extent men. data area identify gender awareness, lack thereof, services information . aspect -governance addressed subcategories household- individual- indicator HH9, include internet obtain information / interact general government organizations. HH9 provide gender-related information illustrate gender differentials utilization social media. HH10 Proportion individuals mobile cellular telephone important indicator examining gender differentials intense interest mobile phone instrument women’ empowerment.68 HH12 Frequency individual Internet - day - week day, - month week, month HH15 ICT skills individuals - Copying moving file folder - copy paste tools duplicate move information document - sending -mails attached files (.. document, picture, video) - basic arithmetic formulas spreadsheet - Connecting installing devices (.. modem, camera, printer) - Finding, downloading, installing configuring software - Creating electronic presentations presentation software (.. slides, including, , images, sound, videos charts) 19ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators - Transferring files computer devices - Writing computer programme specialized programming language HH15, added list core iCT indicators 2013, significant measures iCT skills individuals, broken sex. area missing Partnership core list indicators. view lack data iCT skills, adult literacy rates gross secondary tertiary-level enrolment rates proxy indicators iCT skills iCT development index (idi).69 information iCT skills largely absent international standard statistics, developed countries economies. eurostat’ household individual usage questionnaire collected data 2011 -skills related computer general internet skills . data collected iCT skills disaggregated sex indicators time 2011.70 iCT skills HH15 listed ascending order difficulty: regarded requiring basic skills, requiring moderate level skills involves substantially higher skills.. inclusion individual-level indicators Partnership’ core list guarantee collected developing countries. countries africa, arab states asia Pacific collect data, americas Commonwealth independent states (Cis) roughly fifths countries collect (table 3). basic problem nsOs developing countries collect data iCT indicators place, collect indicators household access iCT individual usage iCTs. collect usage data disaggregate sex standard classificatory variable household survey. report iCT- indicators, 90 cent disaggregate sex. individual indicator collected concerns mobile phone , collected 30 cent countries collected iCT- indicators. europe large majority countries report iCT- indicators disaggregated sex (table 3). data collection gap individual- indicators implies paucity internationally comparable, quality data gender iCT informing policy long-term planning, -income countries. household composition added classificatory variable household information. purpose disaggregating sex determine female-headed households disadvantaged comparison types households terms iCT access usage. iTu moved direction proposal iaeg-gs add “ sex household head” indicators proportion households radio, TV internet. tabLe 3. countries reporting itu core ict access indicators, 2009−2011 region (1) totaL . countries . countries reporting ict- indicators proportion countries reporting ict- indicators (%) . countries reporting ict- indicators disaggregated sex Africa 44 2 4.5 2 Arab States 21 4 19.0 4 Asia Pacific 40 11 27.5 10 CIS 12 5 41.7 4 Americas 35 14 40.0 13 Europe 43 36 83.7 36 Total 195 72 36.9 69 Source: iTu. Note: table iTu definition regions (: www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/Pages/definitions/regions.aspx). 20 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT united nations report, World’ Women 2010, identifies collection statistics indicators female-headed households important contribution initiatives aimed poverty alleviation attainment Mdgs.71 statistical evidence disparities female-headed households households lead policies programmes facilitate female-headed households’ access iCTs promote access usage girl children. addition bring interesting results HH16 household expenditures iCTs, enumerating differences households headed women headed women, HH11 type internet access, including exploring differences access broadband. methodological difficulties identifying female-headed households, male adult present. important enumerators avoid gender bias assuming female head household adult male present. demographic , economic roles women, meant necessarily case.72 difficulty defining list categories household composition. traditional notion existence head household assumes households consist family, person primary authority responsibility household affairs financial support. , longer case countries. multiple forms households common , -sex households, children, child-headed households,73 jointly headed households households unrelated individuals, .    difficult respondents  household surveys   designate household head objective criteria, find objective criteria definition.  absence clear criteria, household reference person household surveys censuses family coding purposes, arbitrary. research needed determine country practices purpose identifying household heads, equivalent, categories household composition variable finalized. concept household composition clarified, include female-headed households categories households. variable gendered comparison purposes identifying disadvantages female- households terms iCT access . point controversy , contrast accepted orthodoxy subject, female- headed households disadvantaged male-headed households.74 .2. Additions indicators household/individual Proposed additional indicators: .2.1. Proportion individuals mobile phone type activity .2.2. Proportion individuals mobile phone .2.3. Proportion individuals Internet, type barrier .2.1. proportion individuals mobile phone type activity indicator men women phones important analysis gender-related variations . indicator illustrate range activities mobile phones limitations thereto. differentials men women skills relating mobile phones. important developing countries mobile phone dominant iCT, higher proportion women mobile phones computers. indicator internet-enabled phones kinds. - indicator activities unconnected phones, disaggregated sex, interesting analysis gender differentials. questions responses defined. address educational activities, including learning mobile phones. global proliferation mobile phones, difficult define comprehensive list activities, vary greatly country country factors age, gender, geographical location, income level education. core indicators concentrate economic social development, important include development-directed categories. nobel laureate amartya sen’ argument development freedom, variety leisure activities purposeful included.75 21ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators responses gender issues: - sending receiving text messages - undertaking financial banking transactions - Making voice calls sMs business purposes - accessing social media - downloading mobile applications - accessing videos - photographs - sending photographs - Leisure activities information: - goods services - related health health services - government organizations examples gender issues responses include: women’ mobile phones limited sending receiving text messages, related level skills, generally require literacy internationally language. women’ limited voice calls , level functionality. activities, undertaking financial transactions, downloading mobile applications sending photographs, higher level skills studies iCTs looked gender differentials usage, women credited purposeful (.. obtaining information family -, phone business purposes), men leisure. Comparisons gender differentials responses provide data test assumptions. social media girls’ women’ attempts bypass cultural mobility isolation suffer. lead comparisons male female medium. .2.2. proportion individuals mobile phone question addressed individual / presently owned mobile phone. definition mobile phone owner worked , consideration dependent ownership handset subscriber identity module (siM), shared ownership included include siM card owners handsets. period ownership defined (.. 12 months). considered phone supplied employer constitutes ownership. difficult arrive consensus definition phone ownership vary country country. strict definition adopted, lead undercounting individuals developing countries. alternative method single definition mobile phone ownership divide question categories ownership, . constitutes ownership, measure question mobile phone ownership difficult . europe north america, common mobile phone ownership pattern single subscriber subscription single handset. , patterns ownership heterogeneous. individual siM card handset owned . developing countries common siM cards ( retail $1 distributed free charge promotional offers) handsets. africa, individuals regard mobile phone owners siM card. Possessing siM card address reachable ( messages voice mail) enables open bank account, facilitating financial transactions credit call borrowed mobile phone device. Kenya, population owns siM card, mobile phone. adding owners siM card handset phone, Kenya’ mobile ownership penetration rate 80 cent.76 asia, , siM cards confer mobile phone ownership status disappearing, cheap Chinese handsets , $10 sri Lanka, . data needed show gender differentials ownership siM cards handsets evolves time. analysts suggested siM card registrations obtain sex-disaggregated data mobile phone owners.77 approach, definition mobile phone owner : person owns handset active siM card(), simply owns active siM card(). biggest problem siM card registrations, required african 22 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT countries generally register sex registrant, identify unique users. africa, asia Latin america, people multiple siM cards. estimates mobile penetration rates based siM card registration erroneously double number unique owners.78 Kenya, 15.2 cent population surveyed base pyramid active siM cards, india 71 million subscribers 2012 multiple siM cards.79 world average 1.85 siM cards individual developed countries, 80 cent single subscribers networks.80 reasons multiple siM cards: - advantage free reduced intra- network calls free reduced costs introductory cards - Lack network connections areas - Functional advantages specific phone related siM card - status symbols - Possession mobile phones allowing dual triple simultaneous siM use81 gender-related problem siM card registration ownership men purchase card names give women. reasons, siM card registration work accurate indicator mobile phone ownership sex. feasible method collect data individual mobile phone ownership sex household/individual- survey. number private surveys mobile phone owners africa developing areas produced large samples sex-disaggregated data.82 surveys asked individuals owned mobile phone, asked individual owned siM card handset. simply global subscriber data websites www.census.gov. large-scale Blair Foundation/ gsMa study defined mobile phone owner subscriber mobile services. imply siM-card owner qualify owner, .83 demand gender-related mobile phone data heaviest demand gender-related data concerns mobile phone usage household individual levels. indisputably discussed area gender iCT development, access internet. includes mobile phone activities, ownership mobile devices ( gender-sensitive area) barriers internet ( internet-enabled phones). core mobile phone indicator (HH10 -- mobile phone), comparable indicator HH9 ( delineates internet activities individuals) regard mobile phone activities. important area developing countries mobile phones internet-connected, mobile phone users developed countries choose phones internet-connected. disadvantages usage mobile phones female-headed households concern. data pertaining issue required. mobile phones gender issue gender-related core indicators related mobile phones essential predominant iCT globally − numerous computers. Mobile cellular penetration rates developing countries surpass internet. africa, , 16 cent population access internet, mobile penetration rate 63 cent. rest developing world penetration rates 89 cent mobile phones 31 cent internet.84 Women mobile phones internet computers general. , instances, women mobile phones constitute majority users. Cameroon, Mozambique south africa, , women men mobile phones, gender differentials small ôte ’ivoire, ethiopia rwanda, statistically insignificant Botswana namibia.85 internet access general, mobile broadband internet access, remains men women developing countries compared narrowband mobile phones, women.86 core indicator HH9 details internet activities individuals depth, mobile phone activities, internet -internet applications. smartphone users accessing internet phones, women developing countries smartphones means accessing internet mobile cellular phones. 23ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators men computer access internet, , knowledge international language, mobile phone accessible iCT. importance mobile learning increasingly important medium girls young women developing countries − limited education mobility − times pregnancy childbirth leads multiple difficulties returning school. applications developed education unable school. unesCO iTu encouraging gender mobile learning.87 reasons mobile phones important iCT majority women developing countries: - initial capital costs computers - steep learning curve computers - literacy levels - working fields home office - serve aids safety security - enable greater freedom mobility research africa shown - income women pay substantial portion income acquire mobile phone, .88 research developing countries shows mobile phones brings numerous benefits women children. , mobile phones leads : employment women men, increases household earnings resulting health, nutrition education outcomes children, higher earnings marketing agricultural produce result mobile-accessed information market prices ability contact suppliers customers, increased economic opportunities mobile-phone-related micro-businesses (.. phone access, rentals, recharging operating information kiosks), ability carry business activities engaged domestic activities, possibility circumvent gender-based social conventions restrict women’ mobility contacts men, increased - access health information providers. addition, mobile phones provide address enable access banking facilities women previously lacked .89 measure mobile phone ownership importance mobile phones recognized core indicator HH10 mobile phone usage, girls women, developing countries, ownership mobile phone preferable simply access sharing borrowing. entails relationship dependence obligations uncomfortable women, owning phone privacy, convenience greater security. benefits ownership include acquisition unique address phone number, substitute office, bank account, / means obtaining micro-insurance. increase economic professional opportunities, entrepreneurs -employed. shared phones frequently involve pressures girls women, occur ownership women men assistance purchasing airtime phones. balance, , appears mobile phone ownership offers greater possibilities privacy autonomy shared usage. early twentieth century england, Virginia Woolf held “ room ’ ” standard women’ autonomy. twenty- century, aspiration room replaced mobile phone ’ . view cultural difficulties women face mobile phones owning , mobile phone ownership advance gender equality. owning mobile phone generally implies sharing phone individual, phone general public ( grameen Village Phone programme).90 , research africa share. survey mobile phone owners Kenya quarter shared phone , shared, spouse. south africa, fifths mobile phone owners base pyramid share phone .91 sharing, male owners female recipients.92 men women, phone sharing common poor rural areas, varies prevalence country country. study Kenya showed mobile phone sharing correlated scarcity phones; 24 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT percentage mobile phone owners increased, instances sharing decreased.93 presence mobile phone household assurance female household members access . June 2013 revisions core iCT household indicators stipulate indicators refer household iCT devices “ member household time.” reassuring, operationally hard ascertain, cultural gender bias difficult establish interview. Householders boys men house preference accessing iCT, socio- cultural differences, greater workloads females, constrain girls women equal access iCT. pattern undoubtedly holds true mobile phone access, cost-- involved. .2.3. proportion individuals inter- net, type barrier gender issues internet determined addressing question individuals household household order obtain responses vary sex individual respondent. eurostat addresses barriers internet individual level, OeCd recommended approach developing countries.94 HH14 questions barriers household internet access addressed individuals elicit responses sex, “privacy security concerns” “cultural reasons (.. exposure harmful content)”. varying responses sex identify important gender concerns. current household-level response lack confidence knowledge skills internet interest gender analysts individual level, body research shows girls women generally - esteem underestimate computer skills.95 indicator individual level open possibility areas parents’ partners’ attitudes girls women internet. question response categories defined. questions include issues discussed barriers female access internet, including awareness internet, literacy educational level, international language skills, digital skills, time, cost, geographical location (.. urban . rural), social cultural norms skills. methodological difficulty girls women household talk freely enumerator, allowed speak presence male members household. barriers girls’ women’ internet household surveys address issue household level. , barriers internet confronting males females, important individual level, disaggregated sex. topic discussed length literature gender iCT. barriers encountered girls women developing countries identified relating literacy, education, language, time, cost, geographical location (.. urban . rural), social cultural norms skills.96 important aspect attitudes society women information technology, notably commonly adopted gendered attitude computers male domain, prevalence technophobia females.97 eurostat’ questions individual barriers internet include response items frequently gender issues internet access: lesser likelihood women knowing international languages commonly internet, women’ lack time accessing internet.98 issues clear gender-related differentials developing countries.99 .3. household/individual indicators future consideration .3.1. broadband meeting Mexico City 2013 united nations Broadband Commission adopted targets gender equality broadband 2020. , identify indicators related target subsequent report, Doubling Digital Opportunities.100 eurostat OeCd collect indicators individual access broadband member states, difficult collect indicator developing countries. desirability 25ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators indicator measure progress attainment Broadband Commission target, indicator – users broadband internet connections, sex – feasible collect, administrative data household surveys developing countries. service providers provide information types services offered subscribers, subscriber level, include entire households offices, necessarily individuals. household surveys date, respondents generally type speed connection . People internet places, multiple devices, speeds, knowing specific speed/type connection . 2013, discussions iTu- expert group iCT Household indicators Online Forum, examined question broadband access household level, consensus question difficult implement individual level individuals find difficult distinguish narrowband broadband. difficulties collecting data indicator, developing countries, indicator recommended inclusion core list time. , measurement broadband access households, gender, partially covered indicator HH11 addition sex household head classificatory variable. .3.2. gender-based violence indicators considered future development 2013 meeting iTu expert group Household indicators children youth online protection (CYOP) internet security privacy include gender issues, including cyberbullying girls, exposure victimization girls women pornography, sexual solicitation, trafficking girls women.101 security privacy issues include references domestic violence. related issue potential interest incidence cybercrime women men. work develop indicators statistical methodology measuring aspects. .4. General methodological considerations gender statistics conclusion section gender-related household individual indicators iCT usage, review additional general principles collection gender statistics indicators pertinent individual household indicators. introduction gender iCT statistics involves unique set challenges girls boys, women men necessarily engage activities, necessarily behave . Boys men generally subject constraints girls women, necessarily opportunities . united nations Gender Statistical Manual recommends data collection tools involving gender account stereotypes social cultural factors introduce gender bias data.102 accurate collection data, girls women talk freely interviewer. interviewed presence male head household ease talking male interviewer ability randomly select individuals household surveys constrained culturally unacceptable male head household wife daughter, , selected individual questions. cases, OeCd recommends making adjustments results representative population.103 specifically referring gender, iTu’ Manual Measuring ICT Access Individuals Households recommends members household interviewed respond , individual randomly selected respond / . 26 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT . eduCatIoN aNd ICt INdICators .1. Existing indicators disaggregated sex core indicators ict education uis responsible collection core indicators iCT education.104 core indicators, gender- related uis collecting sex- disaggregated data : ED6: Proportion learners access Internet school ED8: Proportion ICT-qualified teachers primary secondary schools uis refined indicator ed6, conceptually methodologically similar indicators collect data desired, : · Proportion pupils enrolled ( sex) programmes offering internet-assisted instruction; · Proportion pupils enrolled ( sex) programmes offering internet-assisted instruction ( broad- band) difference language Partnership core indicator ed6 alternative indicators collected uis. uis determined indicators preferable ed6 reflect emphasis pupils’ access participation programmes offering internet pedagogical purposes -pedagogical / administrative activities. ed8, uis nationally adopted standards identify iCT qualified teachers. remaining Partnership core education indicator : ED7: Proportion learners ( sex) enrolled post-secondary -tertiary tertiary level ICT-related fields ( ISCED level 4 levels 5-6) present uis collecting data ed7 focusing primary secondary level education. strong case, , collection ed7, data demand show potential countries successfully compete information society. , interest gender statistics, small numbers girls women fields. compare number girls enrolled iCTs number girls graduate subsequently employed iCT jobs. Based data scoping survey completed 2007, 8 cent developed countries (LdCs) 11 cent african countries data indicator, 20 cent reporting countries asia, Latin america Caribbean, Oceania. region majority countries reporting data. developed economies, 40 cent supplied data. work remains stimulate collection reporting data developed developing economies. Tables 4 5 show availability geographical region sex-disaggregated data core indicators iCT education − ed6 ed8 – countries reporting data uis). indicators measure isCed levels 1-3. , indicators, regions submitted data . arab states, Central asian east asia Pacific countries reporting ( 25, 22 15 cent reporting, ) submitted sex-disaggregated data ed6 (.. teachers internet-assisted instruction); ed8 similar number countries reported, country .. reporting data indicators disaggregated sex. sectors, outstanding challenge education remains collection data individual iCT . .2. Additional -core indicators ICT education disaggregated sex addition core iCT indicators, uis collecting sex-disaggregated data indicators contained uis’ Guide Measuring ICT Education:105 ED35: Proportion primary secondary school teachers trained ICT-enabled distance education programmes ED36: Proportion primary secondary teachers teach basic computer skills ( computing) ED37: Proportion primary secondary school teachers teach subjects 27ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators ICT facilities ED38: Proportion primary secondary school teachers trained teach subjects ICT facilities ED45: Proportion learners enrolled grades basic computer skills ( computing) taught ( ISCED levels 1-3)106 explicit Guide, additional indicators core indicators obtaining sex-disaggregated data. due general lack data focus primary secondary education, uis collecting data indicators: ed41: Proportion learners entitled computer laboratories school pedagogical aid ( gender, type institution isCed levels 1-3) ed46: Proportion learners ( gender) graduated academic year iCT-related fields post-secondary -tertiary tabLe 4. proportion Learners enroLLed programmes offering internet-assisted instruction - ed6a region totaL countries . countries reporting data . countries reporting sex-disaggregated data Arab States 20 5 5 Central Eastern Europe 21 0 0 Central Asia 9 2 2 East Asia Pacific 34 5 5 Latin America Caribbean 43 21 16 North America Western Europe 29 0 0 South West Asia 9 0 0 -Saharan Africa 46 0 0 Total 211 33 28 Source: uis. Note: Partnership members differ definitions regions. regions defined unesCO (: http://www. unesco.org//en/unesco/worldwide/). data collected methodologically similar indicator, Proportion learners enrolled programmes offering Internet-assisted instruction. tabLe 5. proportion ict quaLified teachers primary secondary schooLs - ed8 region totaL countries . countries reporting data . countries reporting sex-disaggregated data Arab States 20 5 5 Central Eastern Europe 21 0 0 Central Asia 9 2 1 East Asia Pacific 34 5 5 Latin America Caribbean 43 21 11 North America Western Europe 29 0 0 South West Asia 9 3 2 -Saharan Africa 46 0 0 Total 211 36 24 Source: uis. Note: regions defined unesCO (: http://www.unesco.org//en/unesco/worldwide/). 28 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT tertiary level ( isCed level 4 levels 5-6) ed47: Proportion learners ( gender) enrolled tertiary level iCT-enabled distance education programmes ( isCed levels 5-6) ed48: Proportion learners successfully completed basic computer skills ( computing) academic year ( isCed levels 1-3) ed49: Promotion rate learners grades receiving iCT-assisted instruction ( gender, type institution grade) ( isCed levels 1-3) ed50: Promotion rate learners grades receiving iCT-assisted instruction ( gender, type institution grade) ( isCed levels 1-3) ed51: iCT-assisted instruction performance ratio ( gender, type institution, grade) ( isCed levels 1-3) ed53: number female graduates 1,000 male graduates iCT-related fields ( isCed level 4 levels 5-6) Guide Measuring ICT Education, uis collects data gender-related education indicators: • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes access electricity (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes access telephone communication facilities (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes radio() pedagogical (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes television() pedagogical (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes computer() pedagogical (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes broadband internet facilities pedagogical (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) programmes open education resources (isCed levels 1-3) • Proportion students enrolled ( gender) courses offering basic computer skills computing (isCed levels 1-3) .3. Proposed additional indicators education existing core iCT indicators education, indicators suggested: .3.1. Proportion primary secondary school teachers trained teach subjects ICT facilities (ISCED 1-3) (based UIS indicator ED38) .3.2. Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering computer-assisted instruction (ISCED levels 1-3)107 .3.3. Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering Internet-assisted instruction (ISCED levels 1-3) .3.4. Proportion pupils enrolled programmes offering courses basic computer skills computing (ISCED 1-3) .3.5. Proportion graduates ICT-related fields post-secondary -tertiary tertiary levels (based UIS indicator ED46) Justification proposed additional indicators justification proposed indicators. measure extent generation prepared entering information society, identifying countries giving learners early start acquire iCT skills benefit computer- / internet-assisted instruction primary advanced secondary levels. indicators current core indicator identifies learners access internet school. additional indicators show proportion enrolments schools programmes iCT learning fundamental measuring capacity building digitally literate citizens perform “knowledge economy”. iCTs learning requires teachers trained computers internet teach computer skills subjects, including teaching students computers internet study subject. information society form, iCT-assisted education primary school level continue secondary level. education systems give countries major advantage building global competitiveness. methodological considerations countries − middle-income 29ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators higher income countries − report data indicators. LdCs tend challenged regard. problem indicators measure participation enrolled schools ignore gaps access entire population, generally higher --school rates girls. solve enrolment rates calculate participation indicators population data published united nations Population division (unPd), account --school children. provide measurement differentials boys’ girls’ participation iCT-assisted instruction. Justification proposed additional indicator graduates ict-related fields core indicator learners ( sex) enrolled iCT-related fields post-secondary -tertiary tertiary levels (ed7). addition ed7, highly desirable indicator shows numbers relative percentages, sex, post-secondary tertiary-level graduates iCT-related fields. indicator highlight proportion women population formal training iCT professionals. number women graduates iCT-related fields falling, increasing, decades. reflects “leaky pipeline” phenomenon108 girls women successively higher level education, employment responsibility scientific technical fields, related iCT. , levels enrolment girls technical subjects increasingly higher levels pre-tertiary education due numbers originally enrolled levels education. , important number females enrolled iCT-related fields, number graduated. vital males females iCT-related studies graduate order follow progression labour force higher levels skills responsibility. important view enormous shortfalls iCT- qualified personnel, male female, countries world. statistics number female graduates iCT-related fields numbers fill existing job vacancies. numbers fall short expectations, policy measures put place ( institutional national levels) girls women enrolled school graduation iCT fields. additionally, comparison education data ( enrolment graduation rates) girls/women studying iCT fields labour force data working field inform policy, regard leaky pipeline phenomenon, shows significant numbers female graduates iCT fields joining labour force joining dropping .109 methodological considerations indicator demand difficult collect variety fields institutions sources data. indicators, data hard collect developing countries. Cross-country classifications comparable, countries consistent definitions classifications fields study, adapted classification fields study considered iCT-related. , uis concentrating primary secondary education, indicator priority uis. indicators, institutions provide accurate student data gender students. . eMployMeNt section brings measurement aspects iCT employment: employment iCT professional technical occupations ( sectors), employment iCT sector. gender-related indicators iCT employment, indicator proposed revision existing core indicator add disaggregation sex. .1. Employment ICT occupations .1.1. existing indicators , core indicators iCT occupational employment, strong demand data, disaggregated sex.110 area great relevance policy. methodological 30 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT work cooperation iLO valuable addition Partnership’ work. view continuous growth globally iCT industry, intensive iCT industries importance iCT skills myriad occupations, important gender distribution iCT employment skills order assess action promote women’ competitiveness marketplace augment supply iCT-skilled workers levels. importance area general, gender statistics , data collection indicators greatly hampered lack uniform, internationally accepted definition iCT employment structure iCT labour market. result, measurement women’ employment iCT easy. area employment women included discussions statistical definition iCT employment general, calls internationally accepted standard definition. complexities definition iCT employment variety approaches measuring , including: • Employment ICT occupations • Employment ICT sector ( industry) • Employment ICT skills tools iCT jobs iCT industry virtually sector economy countries today. iCT-trained men women employed iCT-intensive occupations iCT sector, reflecting deployment iCT-enabled innovations economy. addition, men women iCT skills workplace gained iCT education, working iCT sector iCT jobs. report proposes development gender-related indicators iCT occupations111 iCT sector. employment iCT skills covered time vastness undertaking: require surveying virtually entire working world iCT skills tools. sex-disaggregated indicators employment iCT occupations sectors iCT sector. statistics compiled OeCd show substantial differences categories employment women, vary country. developed emerging economies relevant data , significantly proportion women men employed iCT sector iCT occupations.112 2010, countries women’ share employment iCT occupations 18 cent, iCT sector 30 cent. share iCT sector high estonia Hungary, 40 cent, united states, Bulgaria romania led proportion women iCT specialists, 25 cent .113 .1.2. proposed additional indicator: proportion employees ict occupations, sex response rapid technology, professional technical occupations, international standard Classification Occupations isCO-08 adopted 2007 public domain 2008.114 isCO-88, standard, date areas result developments technology professional, technical clerical work, require substantial computers telecommunications. isCO-08 updated expanded categories iCT professional technical occupations (table 6). ICT professionals ( -category major group entitled professionals) comprise minor groups software applications developers analysts, database network professionals. Technicians associate professionals (ICT technicians) divided minor groups iCT operations user support technicians, telecommunications broadcasting technicians. distinction professionals technicians/associate professionals based education (tertiary-level education required professionals category) skills. distinction classification iCT occupations high intermediate levels iCT skills, potentially helpful identifying gender differentials levels employment skills men women, , working iCT occupations.115 iCT occupations included major category managers, iCT managers comprising minor group -group production specialized service managers. managers group professionals group require tertiary-level education. 31ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators introduced isOC-08, iLO attempted define iCT occupations broadly isCO groups “ occupations require skills production iCT goods services.” general acceptance definition long permitting collection indicator women’ employment iCT occupations, assess proportion women higher skill managerial levels.116 Final agreement needed specific occupational groups included. iLO, data employment classified industry occupation countries sufficient level detail production statistics iCT employment, iLO habitually collect information. growing number countries, data disaggregated sex. data european OeCd countries united states 2010 showed women iCT occupations tended prevalent) education health, finance insurance, public administration. higher percentage american iCT specialists ( 30 cent males females) work professional business services, europe women men working generally -paid area.117 iLO publishes data employment disaggregated sex category iCT professionals iLOsTaT database. indicator added Partnership core indicators, including professionals, technicians/associate professionals managers categories. data disaggregated sex occupational levels (managers, professionals, associate professionals technicians). data sources include labour force surveys, official estimates censuses, national statistical offices’ publications websites. major statistical issue finalize definition specific occupational groups included. critical methodological issue achieve agreement definition measurement iCT employment. sorted , gender breakdown difficult labour data sourced households. .2. ICT employment .2.2. revision existing core indicator ict1: proportion total business sector workforce involved ict sector, sex response growing demand employment data relating iCT, isiC rev. 4 identifies iCT sector “alternative aggregation” member states statistical data collection. iCT sector defined part economic activity generated production iCT goods services. grouped iCT manufacturing, trade service industries, telecommunications, computer tabLe 6. categories ict professionaL technicaL occupations maJor groups maJor/-maJor occupationaL groups minor groups education requirement ict skiLLs requirement Professionals ICT professionals Software applications developers analysts Tertiary level High level Database network professionals Tertiary level High level Technicians associate professionals ICT technicians ICT operations user support technicians Tertiary level required Intermediate level Telecommunication broadcasting technicians Tertiary level required Intermediate level Managers Managers: Production specialized service managers ICT managers Tertiary level required defined Source: isCO-08. iLO, international standard Classification Occupations: structure, group definitions correspondence tables. isCO-08. Vol. . geneva; : www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/ publication/wcms_172572.pdf. 32 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT programming, data processing computer communications equipment repair. addition, software publishing, computer programming, data processing web portals added sector’ definition.118 Compliance member states classification iCT sector, disaggregated sex, provide clearer indication women’ share employment sector. iLO recognizes significance disaggregation sex indicator category “employment sector”, iCT sector part. stated iLO, “ analysis gender segregation employment specific sector. men women equally distributed sectors, concentration females services sector”.119 iCT sector major driver economy countries, developing countries seek promote order gain competitive advantage, degree participation women sector important document order determine country fully utilizing human resources advantage. iCT1 core indicator unCTad collected 2004. data availability remains scarce developing countries, ranks lowest availability business indicators, improving gradually (table 7). needed unCTad iLO developing countries measure employment iCT sector disaggregated sex. Countries adopt iCT sector definition isiC rev. 4. difficulties comparability data emerge countries include -employed contributing family members employment figures. areas women prominent. addition, methodological work indicator revising denominator total business employment total employment, easier retrieve national statistics. . BusINesses, sMall- BusINess owNers aNd ICt INdICators major gender issues addressed internationally comparable statistics iCTs women working businesses iCTs women’ entrepreneurship. distinction “business indicators” “entrepreneurship”. category aimed measuring iCTs business sector country. representativeness data achieved drawing stratified random sample official registry active national businesses. category, indicators aimed measuring iCT entrepreneurs / micro small businesses ( covers informal sector) sampling techniques target population ( cluster sampling). addition representativeness sampling, related distinct areas measurement differ terms questions asked policy issues monitored. ideally, data category indicators collected enterprise surveys. data category collected surveys business owners entrepreneurs. acknowledged entrepreneurs small-business owners conceptually distinct. , section, reasons related feasibility data collection, small-business owners considered proxy entrepreneurship. approximation takes account predominance small-business owners developing countries context iCT women’ empowerment. tabLe 7. economies reporting officiaL data core indicator ict1, 2008−2011 economy . economies reporting Developed 34 Developing 11 LDC 0 Source: unCTad. Note: iCT1 measures proportion total business sector workforce involved iCT sector. countries collect employment data,120 level detail sufficient isiC rev.4 industries part iCT sector definition, developed countries data . iCT1 disaggregated gender persons employed underlying data obtained labour force surveys (effectively household surveys). unCTad collects data countries report number persons employed sector.121 Collaboration 33ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators .1. Business surveys .1.1. gender-related ict business indicators important men women workforce differ access iCTs. women workers men internet work women men full potential differences workforces composed primarily men primarily women terms access computers women men exploit capacities technology productivity success enterprise gender-related business- iCT indicators produce data answer related questions. work unCTad measuring information economy focuses businesses employees access iCTs.122 data collection efforts area face usual difficulty collecting iCT statistics developing countries, decade number economies, transition economies, collecting data increased. latest reference period, 2008−2011, 22 developing economies, LdCs 8 transition economies reported data proportion businesses computers (B1). largest percentage responses developing countries indicator B3 − proportion businesses internet, lowest B9 − proportion businesses internet type access. response rate LdCs business indicators, africa region lowest response rate (table 8). present, sex-disaggregated indicators 12 core indicators iCT business. basic question addressed gender differentials companies male female-dominant workforces, , iCTs. section, proposed include filter question relating gender composition workforce address question. .1.2. revision existing indicators: measuring business ict , gender composition workforce filter question added basic information section unCTad enterprise survey iCT . enterprise respondents asked report total number employees, give breakdown number men women workforce, enabling disaggregation sex employees.123 data readily nsOs.124 Businesses categorized varying levels women’ participation (.. majority women, majority men, gender-balanced). enable comparison iCT usage companies employees genders, examination existing business iCT indicators enterprise size, industry location (urban/rural), gender composition workforce. terms feasibility measurement, easy obtain nationally representative data iCT enterprises majority women/men workers economy. information complement data obtained informal semi-informal women entrepreneurs. categories women workers form part country’ potential develop. complementary data permit analysis , , male-dominated enterprises tend internet interacting government making online payments female-dominated . question , industry, female-dominated enterprises website male-dominated . female-dominated workforces access computer internet internet ways examined. .2. Surveys small-business owners .2.1. gender-related ict indicators entrepre- neurship needed development community evinced considerable interest iCTs women’ entrepreneurship, developing countries.125 increasingly powerful catalyst women’ entrepreneurship, micro small enterprises medium-sized enterprises. area priority number development agencies, including World Bank, usaid united Kingdom’ department international development (dFid). major area interest foundations, 34 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT ta bL 8. io ns / po rt fi ci aL fo di ca rs ic es , 1 12 , 2 00 8− 20 11 gi . ec om . ec om po rt b1 . ec om po rt b2 . ec om po rt b3 . ec om po rt b4 . ec om po rt b5 . ec om po rt b6 . ec om po rt b7 . ec om po rt b8 . ec om po rt b9 . ec om po rt b1 0 . ec om po rt b1 1 . ec om po rt b1 2 Af ric 58 6 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 1 3 3 4 er ic 49 5 5 7 4 6 5 5 5 2 5 5 6 ia 50 16 13 17 11 16 15 16 15 6 15 14 15 Eu ro pe 45 35 34 34 33 35 33 31 32 31 34 33 34 Oc ea ni 23 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 ec om . ec om po rt b1 . ec om po rt b2 . ec om po rt b3 . ec om po rt b4 . ec om po rt b5 . ec om po rt b6 . ec om po rt b7 . ec om po rt b8 . ec om po rt b9 . ec om po rt b1 0 . ec om po rt b1 1 . ec om po rt b1 2 De ve lo pe 32 31 33 31 33 32 31 32 29 32 33 32 De ve lo pi ng 22 19 24 17 21 21 22 21 6 19 18 20 LD 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 Tr si tio 8 8 7 6 8 6 5 5 5 7 5 7 ou rc : Ta ta . ot : ta bl ed Ta la ss ifi ca tio ou nt rie te rr ito rie ; va ila bl : ht tp :/ / pp . ct ad . nc ta . / en / tr ta - -- - Ta - st tic al - es ou rc - ce nt er / la ss ifi ca tio ns / ou nt ry - - io / . 35ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators Cherie Blair Foundation Women, objective support women’ entrepreneurship developing countries, helping increase business skills, technology, networks access finance.126 unCTad emphasizes importance iCT promote women’ entrepreneurship, : evolving iCT landscape offering women entrepreneurs opportunities strengthen businesses effective. mobile phones, electronic platforms networks, radio, TV, blogs internet, women entrepreneurs reaching customers building businesses ways . effective iCTs helping overcome challenges women entrepreneurs developed developing countries face. time, evidence “gender digital divide” women entrepreneurs due lack literacy, skills, access, resources factors excluded opportunities benefits offered iCTs. unCTad mandated promote effective application iCTs enterprise development, including women’ entrepreneurship, develop- ing countries.127 study prepared unCTad recommended iCTs major catalysts accelerating women’ entrepreneurship.128 country grows production employment generated businesses, matter gender business owner. Women’ businesses underutilize iCTs represent untapped potential enterprise success economic growth. unCTad describes succinctly benefits iCTs bring businesses: iCT transaction costs, firms obtain information market opportuni- ties, improve communication chain, broaden ways products services customer. Pri- vate firms invest iCTs produc- tive competitive.129 women-owned businesses --date efficient result optimal iCT , country’ development suffers. success women-owned businesses implications greater higher profit, production employment; translate gains family , providing role models girls, education children improved - family . iCT-based support overcome barriers constraints unique women entrepreneurs, notably, greater difficulties access finance men, time constraints due family domestic responsibilities, restricted physical mobility, cultural restrictions meeting unrelated men, limited skills training.130 reasons, data needed identify male-female differentials part entrepreneurs adopting iCTs. , conceptually, distinction entrepreneurs131 small- business owners, section refers . choice facilitates data collection efforts incipient measurement area, generally difficult identify entrepreneurs owners small businesses. approach considered integrate questions iCT general entrepreneurship surveys. .2.2. icts women owners small- businesses indicators gender differentials adoption iCTs business owners, basic question : male- female-owned micro small enterprises iCT requires data questions: - proportion women-owned businesses iCT, level, purposes - businesses internet - send -mails obtaining information, engaging -business / -commerce - proportion women-owned businesses iCT, purposes, compare male-owned businesses issue differentials male female business owners degree exploitation internet business purposes implications policy. study africa women’ iCTs decreases technologies services sophisticated.132 study small businesses united Kingdom showed women entrepreneurs men 36 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT technological innovations products services.133 Large-scale, comparable data collection countries needed determine findings generalized. reliably documented, results recommend policy actions benefit entire society. important enterprises profit iCTs sending receiving -mails information internet. male- female-owned enterprises developing transition economies advance adopting applications -business, including business--government (B2g) -commerce. data collected means surveys micro- small- business owners disaggregated sex, questions iCT. , data micro small enterprises difficult collect hard , developing countries, businesses unregistered. collect data, identify viability competitiveness women’ micro small enterprises measures encourage adoption upgrading iCTs needed. methodological approach survey iCT women entrepreneurs Malaysia.134 Pending analysis comparability, data gathered informal sector sources number countries. , data small-business owners surveys united states united Kingdom, include iCT-related questions: - united states: survey Business Owners Census Bureau135 - united Kingdom: sources, including small Business survey (department Business innovation skills);136 Women’ entrepreneurship Facts statistics Prowess ( national association Promotion Women’ enterprise).137 number relevant surveys, focus business owners, conducted developing countries, approaches methodologies tend vary greatly.138 World Bank extracts data Micro-small Medium enterprises (MsMe) surveys publishes sex-disaggregated indicators, including firms female participation ownership, data nationally representative. size definitions enterprises surveys differ unCTad based official statistics, data collection consultancy firm.139 iLO, ria Lirneasia involved identifying / collecting iCT indicators data micro small enterprises. development work needed survey vehicle collecting data iCT small-business ownership. clear definition concepts units surveyed .140 work iLO measuring informal enterprises operators lead collection data differentials male female iCT workplace. Manual Informality suggests access mobile phones internet gender entrepreneurs included variables indicators surveying characteristics informal sector business enterprises.141 approach Colombia survey business environment micro-establishments.142 iLO manual suggests indicators internet mobile phone informal sector enterprises entrepreneurs, number countries include variable informal survey questionnaires, indicators part standard iLO Labour Force survey readily included iLO’ regular data collection countries. experience sex-disaggregated data collection iCT micro small enterprises Tgg members. 2012, ria completed nationally representative business surveys 12 african countries, classifying businesses informal, semi- formal formal, largely basis registration ( informal enterprises unregistered, paying taxes operating temporary structures).143 Businesses identified size enterprise form ownership, breakdowns ownership sex level education. businesses physical presence sampled, sample sizes ranging 375 850.144 vast majority businesses (90 cent) fell informal semi-formal category, ria excluded formal businesses analysis. indicators provide data areas iCT , including: - website - employees’ -mail conducting business 37ChApter ii . IdentIfyIng areas deMand IndIcators - mobile phones / social media advertising - online banking, -mails, mobile phones sMs communication suppliers - online banking mobile phones money transfers customers Lirneasia ran microentrepreneur survey 2013 gauge interactions service providers iCTs (including mobile phones), provision electricity government services urban settings, Bangladesh, india sri Lanka.145 .2.3. proposed additional indicators small- business owners ict .2.3.1. Proportion small-business owners Internet, sex owner .2.3.2. Proportion small-business owners mobile phones, sex owner .2.3.3. Proportion small-business owners mobile phones, type activity sex owner .2.3.4. Proportion small business owners Internet type activity sex owner micro small businesses iCTs mobile phones internet. study women’ increased opportunities entrepreneurship iCT micro small enterprise level india, researchers correlation mobile phones success women’ businesses. mobile phones helped lift barriers increased opportunities, addition positive impact women’ empowerment general family -.146 survey iCTs informal businesses africa showed mobile phones iCT widely ; fixed lines, computers internet negligible.147 , appears gender divide developing countries iCTs, mobile phones, business. study african countries, higher share male-owned female-owned informal sector businesses mobile phones.148 Microenterprises internet ( number steadily increasing), significant globally operation small businesses, deal international clients suppliers. proposed indicators, emphasis iCTs platforms purpose (.. business processes, obtaining information, locating contacting clients).149 choices platform-specific - internet-enabled mobile phone internet- enabled mobile phone computer purposes. raises problem redundancy questions, , , women developing countries internet-enabled mobile phones. ria’ 2013 study 10 12 african countries, women internet-enabled mobile phones men.150 case data disaggregated sex. -indicators calculated size enterprise. information age education level entrepreneur valuable. noted, question internet redundant entrepreneurs internet-enabled mobile phones. list usage activities reviewed, generally follow unCTad indicator M4 mobile phones Core iCT indicator B12 internet.151 ideally, activity lists vary level digital skills required variety sophistication business purposes. issues worked exercise methodology. major difficulties identifying unregistered microenterprises assuring undertaking surveys micro small enterprises iCT modules developing countries. . -goVerNMeNt -government core indicators added Partnership’ core list indicators 2012, individual-level core -government indicators disaggregated sex.152 , Wsis target indicators, :153 EG1 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely - puters EG2 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely Internet Partnership core indicators -government supply-side, demand-side, indicators, users -government services. interest 38 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT male female government employees routinely computers internet, vice-versa, individual-level indicators shed light -government service area directed citizen users; show occupation skill level persons employed, decreases utility. relevant greater importance, wider impact indicators, knowing women accessing government information services, computers internet, finding information services extent men. noted section household- individual- indicators, aspect -governance addressed responses household- individual- indicator HH9, include internet obtain information general government organizations interact organizations. Collection disaggregation indicators provide information iCT skills men women working central government organizations.154 comparison gender differentials lead efforts improve iCT skills sex lagged . reasons, collection core -government indicators increase number gender-related core indicators. Chapter IV. conclusIons recoMMendatIons 40 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT . CoNClusIoNs suggested comprise revisions existing areas iCT measurement (employment iCT sector business access indicators) 13 additional indicators, 10 development work. addition, report identified existing Partnership core indicators, allowing sex-disaggregated reporting ( education -government), data collected international level. report recommends data collection indicators started . areas highlighted consideration future revisions indicator development work: gender equality access broadband gender-based violence. addition suggested , report acknowledges builds 20 existing Partnership core indicators measuring gender iCT. Table 1 presents summary existing Partnership indicators gender iCT suggested revisions additions. basic purpose exercise assess current gender-related indicators identify additional effort improve coverage availability internationally comparable, reliable data gender iCT. important purpose data create awareness differential access iCTs males females, bring issue attention researchers, planners policymakers. suggested endorsed data collected countries, provide considerable information areas internationally comparable data exist present. provide answers questions : education: - women teachers trained extent men teach iCTs - girls learning computer skills school - girls boys benefit computer-assisted learning school - girls graduating iCT-related fields accessing icts: - common barriers accessing internet girls women - female-headed households members types households access iCTs level - women entrepreneurs mobile phones internet advantage business extent men - extent girls women mobile phones - activities females mobile phones - small businesses, men women differ access mobile phones employment ict sector ict jobs sectors: - young women credentials work - gender composition workforce iCTs - extent women represented iCT specialists - proportion women total employment iCT sector Collection data areas important steps process building inclusive information societies. section recommendations strengthening collection gender-related iCT statistics indicators. . reCoMMeNdatIoNs improving collection individual-level iCT data, developing countries, key obtaining gender-related iCT statistics. experience Partnership, biggest problem obtaining data disaggregated sex, collection individual-level iCT data place. individual data scheduled collection, disaggregation sex difficult. 41ChApter iv. conclusIons recoMMendatIons partnership efforts continue develop international standards methodologies ict indicators Partnership Tgg continue working nsOs establish revise, , internationally comparable gender iCT indicators countries nationally representative data collection, account previous efforts, manuals guidelines Partnership. promote collection individual-level data icts developing countries, important activities Partnership efforts encourage nsOs official statistical entities developing countries collect individual-level iCT data, sex classificatory variable. advocacy role Partnership crucial strengthening capabilities collect iCT indicators national level, individual . requires continuation, reinforcement, training efforts part partnership members, including publication manuals guides support technical workshops training courses. efforts needed secure donor funding facilitate iCT data collection developing countries, addition funds developing general statistical expertise. regional economic commissions awareness-raising dissemination efforts, capacity-building. continue coordinate efforts measuring iCT work agencies responsible statistical surveys. strengthen outcomes, terms boosting expertise national statistical systems efficient spending donor funding. build awareness gender-related ict statistics Partnership members individually raise awareness policymakers data producers importance gender-related iCT statistics, emphasizing importance gender iCT data policy-making implementation. fact allocation additional resources collection individual- level iCT statistics easily disaggregated highlighted. interact gender statistics community Partnership, Task group gender, continue increase interactions gender statistics community, iaeg-gs, foster awareness importance iCT gender issues. nsOs concerned integrating gender perspective national statistics, encouraged integration information technology component statistics, view global importance inclusive information/knowledge society. promote data collection multiple mobile telephones special efforts collect data individual mobile cellular phone indicators, developing countries, widely iCT globally, standard mode internet/broadband access world. developing countries, girls women, iCT people. national efforts coordinate ict policymakers incorporate gender data collection nsOs, collaboration policymakers responsible iCT, integrating gender perspective iCT data stage planning data collection setting objectives survey census. adhere international standards promoting awareness gender issues important, emphasis collection internationally comparable statistics order facilitate sound analysis development successful policies programmes. purpose, internationally agreed standards, definitions, guides manuals paramount. kinds surveys iCT surveys desirable large number questions included, inclusion individual-level iCT questions module existing nsO surveys, census labour force survey, valuable. costs national 42 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT data collection, adding items existing instruments preferable undertaking surveys. true developing countries, stand- iCT surveys. Future methodological work internationally comparable gender iCT indicators explore alternative data sources (.. official surveys administrative data sources) identify optimal choice. avoid gender bias general principles gender statistics transmitted supervisors field personnel collecting data conducting interviews order guarantee situation women girls properly reflected individual-level iCT data. gender-related measurement issues gender stereotypes addressed clear explanations questions involve gender issues. Language vetted gender- related biases stereotypes, care examples reinforce gender stereotypes. Field personnel trained experiences situations men women, , conducting interviews, incorporate biases interfere accurate determination inequalities men women. aNNeX 44 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT Revised extended core list ICT indicators, 2013 a1 Fixed telephone subscriptions 100 inhabitants a2 Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions 100 inhabitants a3 Fixed internet subscriptions 100 inhabitants a4 Fixed broadband internet subscriptions 100 inhabitants a5 Mobile broadband subscriptions 100 inhabitants a6 international internet bandwidth inhabitant (bits//inhabitant) a7 Percentage population covered mobile cellular telephone network a8 Fixed broadband internet access prices a9 Mobile cellular telephone prepaid prices a10 Percentage localities public internet access centres (PiaCs) HH1 Proportion households radio HH2 Proportion households television HH3 Proportion households telephone HH4 Proportion households computer HH5 Proportion individuals computer HH6 Proportion households internet HH7 Proportion individuals internet HH8 Proportion individuals internet, location HH9 Proportion individuals internet, type activity HH10 Proportion individuals mobile cellular telephone HH11 Proportion households internet, type service HH12 Proportion individuals internet, frequency HH13 Proportion households multichannel television, type HH14 Barriers household internet access HH15 individuals iCT skills, type skills HH16 Household expenditure iCT B1 Proportion businesses computers B2 Proportion persons employed routinely computers B3 Proportion businesses internet B4 Proportion persons employed routinely internet B5 Proportion businesses Web presence B6 Proportion businesses intranet B7 Proportion businesses receiving orders internet B8 Proportion businesses placing orders internet B9 Proportion businesses internet type access B10 Proportion businesses local area network (Lan) B11 Proportion businesses extranet B12 Proportion businesses internet type activity iCT1 Proportion total business sector workforce involved iCT sector iCT2 iCT sector share gross added 45 iCT3 iCT goods imports percentage total imports iCT4 iCT goods exports percentage total exports ed1 Proportion schools radio educational purposes ed2 Proportion schools television educational purposes ed3 Proportion schools telephone communication facility ed4 Learners--computer ratio schools computer-assisted instruction ed5 Proportion schools internet access type access ed6 Proportion learners access internet school ed7 Proportion learners enrolled post-secondary level iCT-related fields ed8 Proportion iCT-qualified teachers schools eg1 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely computers eg2 Proportion persons employed central government organizations routinely internet eg3 Proportion central government organizations local area network (Lan) eg4 Proportion central government organizations intranet eg5 Proportion central government organizations internet access, type access eg6 Proportion central government organizations Web presence eg7 selected internet-based online services citizens, level sophistication service Annex 46 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT BIBlIography abdul Kalam aPJ rajan Ys (2003). 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Washington, dC, World Wide Web Foundation, 2012; : http://public.webfoundation.org/publications/accelerating-development/. 5 evidenced undP gender inequality index, 2013 (: http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/gii/), measures percentage loss potential human development due shortfalls gender equality, national losses (due inequality female male achievements labour force, empowerment reproductive health), ranging 4.5 cent netherlands 74.7 cent Yemen 6 comprehensive discussion gender technology, Wajcman . Feminist theories technology. Cambridge Journal Economics, 2010, 34(1): 143−152. 7 Hafkin . iCTs gender neutral Lead paper united nations insTraW discussion list gender digital divide, 2002; : http://www.-instraw.org. 8 Huyer , Hafkin , ertl dryburgh . Women Information Society Montreal: Orbicom, 2005; : http:// www.itu.int/iTu-/ict/publications/dd/material/index_ict_opp.pdf. publication outlines gender equality dimension Mdgs, gender equality iCT applications, (pg. 136). 9 gillwald , Milek stork . gender assessment access usage africa. research iCT africa, 2010; : http://www.ictworks.org/sites/default/files/uploaded_pics/2009/gender_Paper_sept_2010.pdf. 10 Hilbert . digital gender divide technologically empowered women developing countries Women’ Studies International Forum, 2010, 3(6): 479−489; : http://www.martinhilbert.8m.net/digitalgenderdivide.pdf. 11 47th session [united nations] Commission status Women, 2003. Participation access women media, information communications technologies impact instrument advancement women. agreed Conclusions, 3; : http://daccess-dds-ny..org/doc/undOC/gen/n03/332/81/PdF/ n0333281.pdf. 12 Wsis 2003, Plan action, Phase Wsis, geneva, 10−12 december 2003. geneva Plan action, item 28d.Wsis- 03/geneVa/dOC/0005; : http://www.itu.int/wsis/documents/doc_multi.asplang=en&id=1161%7C1160. 13 Hafkin Huyer suggest ways including gender analysis gender statistics digital divide index Engendering Knowledge Society: Measuring Women’ Participation. Chapter 2. Montreal, OrBiCOM, 2007. 14 iTu. Wsis Tunis agenda information society. Wsis-05/Tunis/dOC/6 (rev. 1)-, 18 november 2005; : http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs2/tunis//6rev1.html. 15 united nations statistical Commission. revisions additions core list iCT indicators, 2009; : http:// unstats..org/unsd/statcom/doc09/bg-ictindicators.pdf. 16 iTu. report secretary-general, iTu’ activities related resolution 70 (rev. guadalajara, 2010) Corrigendum 1 document C13/39-, 18 June 2013. 17 united nations economic social Council. report Partnership Measuring information Communication Technology development. note secretary-general. York, 2011; : http://unstats..org/unsd/ statcom/doc12/2012-12-iCT-.pdf. 18 data supplied iTu. developed developing countries defined united nations statistics division (: http:// unstats..org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm). 19 unCTad. Information Economy Report. geneva, 2010; : http://unctad.org/en/docs/ier2010_embargo2010_ en.pdf. unCTad. Information Economy Report, geneva, 2011  ;   : http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ ier2011_en.pdf. 20 eCa, esCaP, esCWa eCLaC members Partnership. esCaP esCWa Tgg members. 21 eCa Partnership Measuring iCT development. Framework set -government core indicators, 2011; http://www.itu.int/iTud/ict/partnership/material/Framework_for_a_set_of_e-government_Core_indicators_ notes 54 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT Final_rev1.pdf; national information Technology development agency. draft final report sCan-iCT nigeria 2011 Phase Household individual survey, Volume 1, 2012. unpublished report submitted united nations economic Commission africa 22 eCa. African Gender Development Index. eCa, addis ababa, 2004; : http://www.uneca.org/sites/default/ files/publications/agdi_book_final.pdf. 23 review based common questionnaire united nations statistics division’ (unsd) global review gender statistics united nations regional commissions (: http://unstats..org/unsd/gender/Jordan_Mar2012/ default_Jordan_2012.html). 24 Jafar . esCWa review gender statistics. Presentation 2012 global Forum gender statistics, dead sea, Jordan, 27−29 March 2012. 25 OsiLaC 2013 (http://www.cepal.org/cgi-bin/getprod.aspxml=/socinfo/noticias/paginas/8/44988/P44988. xml&xsl=/socinfo/tpl-/p18f-st.xsl&base=/socinfo/tpl-/top-bottom.xsl). 26 http://estadisticas.cepal.org/cepalstat/WeB_CePaLsTaT/estadisticasindicadores.aspidioma=. 27 http://www.cepal.org/cgi-bin/getProd.aspxml=/mujer/noticias/noticias/6/46146/P46146.xml&xsl=/mujer/tpl-/p1f. xsl&base=/mujer/tpl/top-bottom.xslt. 28 eCLaC. User Manual Gender Equality Observatory Latin America Caribbean. santiago, 2010; : http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/xml/2/40112/ManualObservatorioWebingles.pdf. 29 eurOsTaT information society databases publicly : http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/ information_society/data/comprehensive_databases. eurostat iCT usage statistics cover member states european union (eu) norway, iceland, candidate accession countries eu. 30 variables listed : http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/information_society/data/comprehensive_ databases. 31 OeCd. iCT access households individuals: revised OeCd model survey, 2005; : http://www. oecd.org/dataoecd/58/27/35937246.pdf. 32 OeCd. information communication technology. : OECD Statistical Programme Work, 2013; : http:// www.oecd.org/std/OeCd-main-statistical-activities-2013.pdf. 33 OeCd model questionnaire iCT access households individuals, 2005, Table 6.a1.1, OeCd, OECD Guide Measuring Information Society. Paris, 2011; : http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/ free/9311021e.pdf. 34 economies listed supplied information household/individual- indicator. OeCd, Guide Measuring Information Society, 2011; :https://www.google./searchq=oecd+guide++measuring+ +information+society+2011&oq=OeCd+guide+measu&aqs=chrome.2.69i57j0l5.13969j0j4&sourceid=chrome&espv=21 0&es_sm=91&=uTF-8. 35 Ibí. 2013 listings, data -OeCd member countries: argentina, Bahrain, Belarus, Jordan, Malaysia Mauritius. 36 http://www.oecd.org/gender/data/. 37 Montagnier van Welsum . iCTs gender – evidence OeCd -OeCd countries. Paris, OeCd, directorate science, Technology industry, 2006; : http://www.unctad.org/sections/wcmu/docs/ c3em29p025_en.pdf. 38 due budgetary human resource constraints, technological difficulties. 39 LO. National Statistics. 2013; : http://www.ilo.org/global/statistics--databases/statistics-overview-- topics/gender/national-statistics/lang--en/index.htm. 40 25 countries provide data years. , countries, data hours worked earnings sex missing. 41 : www.lirneasia.net. 42 information Lirneasia’ research indicator work : http://lirneasia.net/projects/ict-indicators/. 43 socio-economic groups classified level education occupation. : http://www.lirneasia.net/wp-content/ uploads/2008/03/whos---phone-gender-bop-v18.pdf, page 8, 44 http://www.researchictafrica.net/.php. 45 gillwald, , Milek stork . gegsMnder assessment iCT access usage africa. Vol. 1, Policy Paper 5. Johannesburg, research iCT africa, 2010; : http://lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/09//gender_P. 46 : http://www.researchictafrica.net/publications/evidence_for_iCT_Policy_action/Policy_Paper_13_-_Lifting_ the_veil_on_iCT_gender_indicators_in_africa.pdf. 55notes 47 indicators defined Huyer Hafkin . Engendering Knowledge Society: Measuring Women’ Participation, Montreal, Orbicom, 2007; : http://www.comminit./global/node/302008. 48 national assessments member countries eu, Brazil, india, indonesia, republic Korea, south africa united states : http://wisat.org/programmes/national-assessments--gender-sti/. 49 World Wide Web Foundation. Web index 2013 expert survey indicators Question List. unpublished document, 2013. 50 : http://www.apc.org/en/projects/gender-evaluation-methodology-internet--icts-ge. 51 Copies sample survey questionnaires supplied renee Wittmeyer, director Women Web study, intel. 52 participants comments WiCTad Forum Washington, dC, 10−11 January 2013. 53 Hafkin . gender. : sadowsky , ed. Accelerating Development Web. World Wide Web Foundation, 2012. 54 report secretary-general, gender statistics, statistical Commission. York, united nations economic social Council, 2013../Cn.3/2013/10; : http://unstats..org/unsd/statcom/doc13/2013-10-genderstats-.pdf. 55 report secretary-general, gender statistics, statistical Commission. York, united nations economic social Council, 2013../Cn.3/2013/10. 56 http://www.oecd.org/dev/poverty/theoecdsocialinstitutionsandgenderindex.htm 57 http://www.socialwatch.org/node/14372. 58 confused association Progressive Communication gender evaluation Methodology internet iCTs, geM. 59 http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-gender-gap. 60 World economic Forum. Global Gender Gap Report, 2012; : http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WeF_ gendergap_report_2012.pdf. 61 : http://unstats..org/unsd/gender/Jordan_Mar2012/Minimum List indicators.pdf. list indicators proposed iTu agreed 4th meeting iaeg-gs, 4−6 October 2012. 62 Torbjörn Fredriksson. Presentation Workstream session Measuring gender iCTs,   Women iCT development Forum, Washington, dC, 10−11 January. 63 case measuring impact iCT gender. complexity iCT impact studies covered length unCTad’ publication, Measuring Impacts Information Communication Technology Development. geneva, 2011 (http://unctad.org/en/docs/dtlstict2011d1_en.pdf). , quantitative iCT research answer questions responses barriers internet household/individual- surveys. 64 , statisticians suggested impact future area iCT indicators nsOs. OeCd. Measuring impacts iCT official statistics. OECD Digital Economy Papers, . 136. Paris, 2006 (http://www.oecd.org/ science/sci-tech/39869939.pdf). 65 Partnership Measuring iCT development. Core ICT Indicators 2010. geneva, unCTad iTu. iTu. Manual Measuring ICT Access Households Individuals 2014. revised edition. geneva, 2014, : http:// www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/Pages/publications/manual2014.aspx. 66 education classified international standard Classification education (isCed) levels, labour force status international Classification status employment (isCe-93), occupations international standard Classification Occupations (isCO) major groups. 67 1st Meeting expert group iCT Household indicators (egH), definition computer updated include tablets similar handheld computers. (iTu, Final report 1st Meeting iTu expert group iCT Household indicators (egH) ã Paulo, Brazil, 4−6 June 2013.) 68 gsMa. Women & Mobile: Global Opportunity, 2010, association mobile phones women’ empowerment. plethora literature subject, extensive list publications dealing gender issues mobile telephony presented bibliography report. 69 iTu. Measuring Information Society. iTu, geneva, 2012, : http://www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/documents/ publications/mis2012/Mis2012_without_annex_4.pdf. 70 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/information_society/documents/Tab/Breakdowns%20summary%20 HH%202003_2012.pdf; http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/iTY_sdds/en/isoc_bde15c_esms.htm. 71 undesa. World’ Women 2010. York, united nations, 2010; : http://unstats..org/unsd/demographic/ products/Worldswomen/WW_full%20report_BW.pdf. 72 undesa. Principles recommendations Population Housing Censuses, revision 2 2.116, para 2.114-2.119, 2008; : http://unstats..org/unsd/publication/seriesM/seriesm_67rev2e.pdf. 56 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT 73 statistical category south africa, child-headed households common HiV/aids- affected areas. countries presence aged grandparent, intents purposes children heading household. 74 Chant . dangerous equations female-headed households poorest poor: , consequences cautions. IDS Bulletin, 2004, 35(4): 19−26. 75 point, Kleine . Technologies Choice. Cambridge, Ma, MiT Press, 2013. 76 World Bank. Mobile usage base pyramid Kenya. Washington, dC, 2013; : http://www.infodev.org/ infodevfiles/final_kenya_bop_study_web_jan_02_2013_0.pdf. 77 Jorge Zelezny-green . mWomen africa: Counting access. 2011; : http://www.pyramidresearch. /points/print/120213.htm. 78 gsMa. global mobile penetration – subscribers connections. 2013; : https://gsmaintelligence./ analysis/2012/10/global-mobile-penetration-subscribers--connections/354/. 79 nielsen. rise multi-sim users: customers shifting dual sim phones effective control costs. Mumbai, 2012; : http://www.nielsen.//en/insights/reports/2012/multi-sim.html. 80 gsMa. global mobile penetration, 2013. alison gillwald reports ria research revealed mobile phone users uganda siM cards person, person unusual south africa. 81 infodev World Bank. Mobile usage base pyramid south africa. Washington, dC, 2013; : http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/final_south_africa_bop_study_web.pdf. examples dual-siM card phones dual siM nokia X1-01 nokia C2-00. 82 Zurovac , Otieno , Kigen , Mbithi aM, Muturi , snow rW nyandigisi . Ownership mobile phones health workers, caregivers sick children adult patients Kenya: Cross-sectional national survey. Globalization Health, 2013, 9: 20; : www.globalizationandhealth./content/9/1/20. World Bank. Mobile usage base pyramid Kenya. Washington, dC, 2013. : Wesolowski , eagle , noor aM, snow Buckee . Heterogeneous mobile phone ownership usage patterns Kenya, PLOs, 2013; : www.plosone.org/article/ info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0035319. public sector, 2009 Financial sector deepening survey, association Kenya national Bureau statistics, conducted large-scale, randomized survey gender variable, included questions mobile ownership (: www.fedkenya.org details study). 83 gsM association Cherie Blair Foundation Women (2010). Women Mobile: global opportunity − study mobile phone gender gap middle-income countries. London, Vital Wave Consulting. 84 iTu. ICT Facts Figures 2013; : http://www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/Pages/facts/default.aspx. estimates refer 2012. 85 gillwald , Milek stork . gegsMnder assessment iCT access usage africa. Vol. 1, Policy Paper 5. Johannesburg, research iCT africa, 2010. 86 Broadband Commission digital development. Doubling Digital Opportunities: Enhancing Inclusion Women Girls Information Society. geneva, iTu unesCO, 2013; : http://www.broadbandcommission.org/ documents/working-groups/bb-doubling-digital-2013.pdf. 87 unesCO, Mobile phone literacy - empowering girls women. Paris, 2013; : http://www.unesco.org// en/unesco/themes/icts/m4ed/policy-research--advocacy/mobile-phone-literacy-project/. : www.girlsinict.org, www.techneedsgirls.org. 88 gillwald , Milek stork . gegsMnder assessment iCT access usage africa. Vol. 1, Policy Paper 5. Johannesburg: research iCT africa, 2010. 89 information derived publications listed bibliography. 90 grameen Bank. Village phones. 2013; : http://www.grameen-info.org/index.phpoption=com_content&task=vi ew&id=540&itemid=598. 91 infodev World Bank. Mobile usage base pyramid Kenya. 2013; : http://www.infodev.org/infodevfiles/ final_kenya_bop_study_web_jan_02_2013_0.pdf. infodev World Bank. Mobile usage Base Pyramid south africa. 2013; : http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/final_south_africa_bop_study_web.pdf. 92 Blumenstock eagle . Mobile divides: gender, socioeconomic status mobile phone rwanda. Proceedings 2010 international Conference information Communication Technologies development. 2010; : www.gg.rhul.ac.uk/ict4d/ictd2010/papers/iCTd2010 Blumenstock al.pdf. 93 Wesolowski , eagle , noor aM, snow rW Buckee CO. Heterogeneous mobile phone ownership usage patterns Kenya. Plos , 2012; : www.plosone.org/article/info%3adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0035319 pone- 0035319-g005. notes 94 eurostat. iCT usage households individual, 2013; OeCd. Guide Measuring Information Society, 2011; : http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/iTY_sdds/en/isoc_bde15c_esms.htm. 95 , , áinz eccles Js. -concept computer math ability: gender implications time iCT studies. Journal Vocational Behavior, 2012, 80: 486−489; : file://localhost/http::dx.doi/10.1016:. jvb.2011.08.005. 96 Hafkin nJ Taggart . gender, information technology developing countries: analytic study. Washington, dC, united states agency international development (usaid), 2001. 97 Hafkin nJ. gender. Loc. Cit., 2012. 98 eurOsTaT. Variables collected household/individuals surveys, 2003−2012. 2013; : http://epp.eurostat. ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/information_society/documents/Tab/Variables%20summary%20HH%202003-2012.pdf. 99 Hafkin nJ Taggart . gender. : Information Technology Developing Countries: Analytic Study. Washington, dC, Learn Link. 2001; Huyer , Hafkin , ertl dryburgh . Women information society. : sciadas , ed. Digital Divide Digital Opportunities: Measuring Infostates Development,. Québec, Claude-Yves Charron: 135−196. 100 Broadband Commission Working group Broadband gender. Doubling Digital Opportunities: Enhancing Inclusion ofWwomen Girls Information Society. geneva Paris, iTu unesCO, 2013; : www. broadbandcommission.org/documents/working-groups/bb-doubling-digital-2013.pdf- 101 iTu, Online expert group Household indicators; : http://www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/Pages/publications/ manual2014.aspx. 102 united nations. Gender Statistical Manual: Integrating Gender Perspective Statistics. York, 2013; : http://unstats..org/unsd/genderstatmanual/-guide---manual.ashx. notably, , manual reference iCT statistics areas interest Partnership. 103 OeCd. Guide Measuring Information Society. Paris, 2011. 104 unesCO. Guide Measuring Information Communication Technologies (ICT) Education. Montreal, unesCO institute statistics, 2009. 105 : http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001865/186547e.pdf 106 uis collects data enrolment programmes offering basic computer skills computing primary secondary levels. 107 indicators, sex-disaggregated data, uis-recognized indicators official ed number uis’ Guide Measuring ICT Education. 108 reference women leaky pipeline Camp . incredible shrinking Pipeline, Communications ACM 1997, 40(10): 103−110. 109 republic Korea case point, large percentage female students graduate iCT-related fields, smaller percentage join workforce ( Young-Ock Kim -Kyung Moon2011. national assessment gender science, technology innovation: republic Korea; : http://wisat.org/data/documents/ repKorea_ge-Ks.pdf). 110 frequent articles newspapers journals topic, “ striking absence women”, York Times, 12 October 2013. 111 estimated 4 5 cent total employment developing countries iCT occupations (iLO, iCT employment indicators gender, geneva, 2013; : http://www.itu.int/en/iTu-/statistics/documents/events/ wtis2013/015_e_doc.pdf). 112 OeCd (2012), “iCT skills employment: Competences Jobs greener smarter economy”, OECD Digital Economy Papers, . 198, OeCd Publishing. doi: 10.1787/5k994f3prlr5-en 113 Ibid. 16. iCT sector european countries defined sum isiC. rev. 4 sections 26, 61, 62 63. definition sector varies countries. iCT specialists, european countries sum isCO-08 codes 213, 312, 313 724. 114 standard published 2012, adopted countries . 115 iCT occupations lowest skill levels (.. iCT installers servicers) male-dominated. Cisco systems, , set networking academy training programme encourage girls young women enter field. required technical training limited tertiary-level education needed. 116 iLO thematic breakdown iCT occupations include number -groups primarily involve production iCT goods services, iCT service managers, electronic engineers, iCT sales professionals iT trainers (sabadash , ICT Employment Statistics Europe: Measurement Methodology. European Commission. JrC Technical report. Luxembourg, 2012; : ftp://ftp.jrc.es/pub/eurdoc/JrC76385.pdf). 58 Measuring iCT gender: assessMenT 117 OeCd. iCT skills employment: competences jobs greener smarter economy. OECD Digital Economy Papers, . 198, 2012. OeCd Publishing; : http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k994f3prlr5-en, 16. 118 major difference isiC rev. 4 previous version regard iCT sector removal stipulation products iCT sector include “ … electronic processing detect, measure / record physical phenomena control physical process.” information isiC rev. 4, : http://unstats. .org/unsd/cr/registry/isic-4.asp. 119 iLO. KiLM 4. employment sector, 1. geneva, 2013; : http://kilm.ilo.org/manuscript/kilm04.asp. 120 data iCT sector collected private sector, national information technology associations, representative national situation based member surveys representative samples nsO surveys. , initiatives collecting publishing sex-disaggregated data . , , Federal Ministry economic Cooperation development, germany. IT Sector Promotion Developing Emerging Countries: Toolbox. Bonn eschborn, deutsche gesellschaft ü internationale Zusammenarbeit (giZ) gmbH, 2011, part unCTad/giZ/WiTsa project iT industry barometer, standardizing global & tool iCT sector. 121 Partnership, Core ICT Indicators, 2010. 122 Wsis charged unCTad developing indicators monitor progress iCTs development. 123 countries, business surveys conducted interviewing iT manager, person difficulties answering question composition workforce gender. 124 ria collected information micro small businesses sex owner ( ria, Household small Business access usage survey 2011. survey Methodology. unpublished paper). 125 information, , , unCTad’ Information Economy Report 2010 2011, 2011 report, Ch. 5, Leveraging iCTs support women’ entrepreneurship; : http://unctad.org/en/docs/ier2010_ en.pdf, http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ier2011_en.pdf. , Lirneasia. Helping BoP microentrepreneurs business mobiles: innovation . 2013; : http://Lirneasia.net/projects/icts--bottom---pryamid. 126 : http://www.cherieblairfoundation.org/-/. 127 unCTad. iCTs Women’ entrepreneurship. geneva, 2013; : http://unctad.org/en/Pages/dTL/sTi_and_ iCTs/iCT4d-Women.aspx. 128 Weeks . unCTad’ research Project Women entrepreneurship innovation. geneva, 2012; : http:// unctad.org/sections/wcmu/docs/ciimem1_4th_Weeks_en.pdf. 129 unCTad. Information Economy Report 2011. geneva, 2011:, Chapter 6. 130 unCTad, Information Economy Report 2011. geneva, 2011, Chapter 5. 131 , , OeCd/eurostat entrepreneurship indicators Programme Measurement Framework, : www. oecd.org/std/business-stats/theentrepreneurshipindicatorsprogrammeeipbackgroundinformation.htm. 132 suggested higher levels technology require education higher income access , women tend men (ria. Lifting veil iCT: gender indicators africa, 1. Cape Town, 2013). 133 Prowess 2.0 Women Business. 2013. Facts, 1; : www.prowess.org/uk/facts. 134 ndubusi nO Kahraman . Malaysian women entrepreneurs: understanding iCT usage behaviors drivers, Journal Enterprise Information Management, 2005, 18(6) : 721−739. 135 www.census.gov/econ/overview/mu0200.html. 136 www.gov.uk/government/publications/small-business-survey-2012-businesses-led--women--ethnic-minorities. small Business survey (Bis) women-led businesses gender category, concentrating women managers majority women management team, women owners. micro small enterprises manager owner. 137 www.prowess.org.uk/facts 138 list surveys iLO, Measuring Informality: Statistical Manual Informal Sector Informal Employment. geneva, 2012; : www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/ wcms_182300.pdf. : statistics south africa. survey employers -employed, 2009. 139 international Finance Corporation. MsMe Country indicators. Washington, dC, 2013; : www.ifc.org/ wps/wcm/connect/industry_eXT_Content/iFC_external_Corporate_site/industries/Financial+Markets/msme+finance/ sme+banking/msme-countryindicators; iFC World Bank. enterprise surveys, Washington, dC, 2013; : www.enterprisesurveys.org. 59notes 140 developing countries, enterprise survey questionnaires addressed iT managers businesses. Questions iCT business owners addressed business owners , larger businesses, aware aspects iCT . difficult adapt business surveys capture information business owners. 141 iLO. Measuring informality: Statistical Manual Informal Sector Informal Employment. geneva: 2012; : www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_182300.pdf. 142 Colombia. departamento administrativo nacional de estadistica. Metodologí: encuesta de microestablecimientos. Bogota, 2009. 143 approach stork esselaar , eds.. African -Index: SME -Access Usage. Witwatersrand, Link Centre, 2006; : http://www.researchictafrica.net/publications/research_iCT_africa_e- index_series/sMe%20e-access%20and%20usage%20in%2014%20african%20Countries.pdf. 144 ria. survey methodology. Household business surveys african countries. unpublished, 2013.. 145 Lirneasia. improving service delivery -inclusion. Colombo, 2013; : http://lirneasia.net/projects/2012-2014- research-program/improving-service-delivery---inclusion/. 146 Malhotra , Kanesathasan Patel . mobile phones, computers Internet catalyze women’ entrepreneurship: case India. Washington, dC, international Center research Women, 2012. 147 ria. gender entrepreneurship informal sector: african perspective. Paper presented Communication Policy research asia/africa conference innovation & entrepreneurship iCT: Changing asia/africa, Mysore, india, 5-7 september 2013. unpublished. 148 inequality pronounced ethiopia, 46.4 cent male-owned businesses mobile phones business purposes compared 3.2 cent female-owned businesses. (ria. gender entrepreneurship informal sector, 2013). 149 unCTad iCT questionnaire defines iCTs business processes purposes: customer relationship management, finance, budget account management, human resource management, product design development, logistics (inbound outbound) inventory control, product service support, knowledge management (unCTad, Manual Production Statistics Information Economy revised edition, 2009). 150 gap biggest uganda men women internet-enabled phones (ria. Lifting veil iCT : gender indicators africa, 1. Cape Town, 2013). 151 indicator suggested unCTad collected (unCTad, Manual Production statistics information economy, revised edition. geneva, 2009). 152 Partnership Measuring iCT development economic Commission africa. Framework Set -government Core Indicators, 2011. 153 Partnership Measuring iCT development. Measuring WSIS Targets: Statistical Framework. geneva, iTu, 2011: 60. 154 Pre-testing survey questions eg1 eg2 developing countries showed difficulties answering , respondents exact proportion. sex disaggregation represent additional difficulty case.